Acknowledgement |
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xv | |
Acronyms |
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xvii | |
Notations |
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xxiii | |
1 Introduction |
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1 | (28) |
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1.1 Birth of Satellite Communications |
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1 | (1) |
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1.2 Development of Satellite Communications |
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1 | (2) |
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1.3 Configuration of a Satellite Communications System |
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3 | (8) |
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1.3.1 Communications links |
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5 | (1) |
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6 | (4) |
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10 | (1) |
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11 | (5) |
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16 | (5) |
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1.5.1 The ITU organisation |
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16 | (1) |
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1.5.2 Space radiocommunication services |
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17 | (1) |
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1.5.3 Frequency allocation |
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18 | (3) |
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21 | (2) |
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23 | (2) |
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25 | (2) |
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27 | (2) |
2 Orbits And Related Issues |
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29 | (84) |
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29 | (24) |
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29 | (1) |
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29 | (1) |
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2.1.3 Relative movement of two point bodies |
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30 | (3) |
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33 | (5) |
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38 | (8) |
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2.1.6 Earth-satellite geometry |
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46 | (6) |
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2.1.7 Eclipses of the sun |
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52 | (1) |
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2.1.8 Sun-satellite conjunction |
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53 | (1) |
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2.2 Useful Orbits for Satellite Communication |
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53 | (27) |
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2.2.1 Elliptical orbits with non-zero inclination |
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54 | (13) |
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2.2.2 Geosynchronous elliptic orbits with zero inclination |
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67 | (1) |
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2.2.3 Geosynchronous circular orbits with non-zero inclination |
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68 | (2) |
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2.2.4 Sun-synchronous circular orbits with zero inclination |
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70 | (1) |
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2.2.5 Geostationary satellite orbits |
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70 | (10) |
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2.3 Perturbations of Orbits |
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80 | (30) |
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2.3.1 The nature of perturbations |
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81 | (2) |
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2.3.2 The effect of perturbations; orbit perturbation |
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83 | (2) |
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2.3.3 Perturbations of the orbit of geostationary satellites |
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85 | (8) |
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2.3.4 Orbit corrections: station keeping of geostationary satellites |
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93 | (17) |
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110 | (1) |
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110 | (3) |
3 Baseband Digital Signals, Packet Networks, And Quality Of Service (QOS) |
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113 | (22) |
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114 | (9) |
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3.1.1 Digital telephone signal |
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114 | (4) |
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118 | (1) |
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118 | (4) |
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3.1.4 Data and multimedia signals |
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122 | (1) |
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3.2 Performance Objectives |
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123 | (1) |
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123 | (1) |
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123 | (1) |
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123 | (1) |
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123 | (1) |
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3.3 Availability Objectives |
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124 | (2) |
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126 | (2) |
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3.4.1 Delay in the terrestrial network |
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126 | (1) |
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3.4.2 Propagation delay over satellite links |
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126 | (1) |
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3.4.3 Baseband-signal processing time |
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127 | (1) |
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3.4.4 Protocol-induced delay |
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127 | (1) |
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3.5 IP Packet Transfer QOS and Network Performance |
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128 | (5) |
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3.5.1 Definition of QoS in the ETSI and ITU-T standards |
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128 | (1) |
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3.5.2 IP packet transfer performance parameters |
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129 | (2) |
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3.5.3 IP service availability parameters |
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131 | (1) |
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3.5.4 IP network QoS class |
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131 | (2) |
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133 | (1) |
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133 | (2) |
4 Digital Communications Techniques |
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135 | (54) |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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138 | (1) |
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138 | (15) |
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4.2.1 Two-state modulation- BPSK and DE-BPSK |
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140 | (1) |
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4.2.2 Four-state modulation - QPSK |
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141 | (1) |
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142 | (3) |
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4.2.4 Higher-order PSK and APSK |
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145 | (1) |
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4.2.5 Spectrum of unfiltered modulated carriers |
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146 | (1) |
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146 | (6) |
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4.2.7 Modulation spectral efficiency |
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152 | (1) |
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153 | (4) |
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4.3.1 Block encoding and convolutional encoding |
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153 | (1) |
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154 | (2) |
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4.3.3 Concatenated encoding |
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156 | (1) |
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157 | (1) |
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4.4 Channel Coding and the Power-Bandwidth Trade-Off |
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157 | (5) |
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4.4.1 Coding with variable bandwidth |
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157 | (2) |
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4.4.2 Coding with constant bandwidth |
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159 | (2) |
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161 | (1) |
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162 | (7) |
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4.5.1 Trellis-coded modulation |
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163 | (3) |
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4.5.2 Block-coded modulation |
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166 | (1) |
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4.5.3 Decoding coded modulation |
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167 | (1) |
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4.5.4 Multilevel trellis-coded modulation |
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167 | (1) |
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4.5.5 TCM using a multidimensional signal set |
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168 | (1) |
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4.5.6 Performance of coded modulations |
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168 | (1) |
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4.6 End-To-End Error Control |
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169 | (1) |
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4.7 Digital Video Broadcasting via Satellite (DVB-S) |
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170 | (5) |
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4.7.1 Transmission system |
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171 | (3) |
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4.7.2 Error performance requirements |
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174 | (1) |
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4.8 Second Generation DVB-S (DVB-S2) |
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175 | (8) |
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4.8.1 New technology in DVB-S2 |
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175 | (2) |
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4.8.2 Transmission system architecture |
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177 | (1) |
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177 | (2) |
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179 | (4) |
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4.9 New Features of DVB-S2X |
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183 | (1) |
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184 | (3) |
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4.10.1 Digital transmission of telephony |
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184 | (1) |
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4.10.2 Digital broadcasting of television |
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185 | (2) |
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187 | (2) |
5 Uplink, Downlink, And Overall Link Performance; Intersatellite Links |
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189 | (86) |
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5.1 Configuration of a Link |
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190 | (1) |
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190 | (6) |
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190 | (2) |
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5.2.2 Radiation pattern and angular beamwidth |
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192 | (2) |
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194 | (2) |
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196 | (1) |
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5.3.1 Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) |
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196 | (1) |
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197 | (1) |
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5.4 Received Signal Power |
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197 | (6) |
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5.4.1 Power captured by the receiving antenna and free space loss |
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197 | (3) |
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200 | (2) |
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202 | (1) |
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5.5 Noise Power Spectral Density at the Receiver Input |
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203 | (10) |
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5.5.1 The origins of noise |
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203 | (1) |
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5.5.2 Noise characterisation |
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203 | (3) |
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5.5.3 Noise temperature of an antenna |
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206 | (5) |
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5.5.4 System noise temperature |
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211 | (2) |
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213 | (1) |
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5.6 Individual Link Performance |
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213 | (6) |
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5.6.1 Carrier power to noise power spectral density ratio at receiver input |
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213 | (1) |
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5.6.2 Clear sky uplink performance |
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214 | (2) |
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5.6.3 Clear sky downlink performance |
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216 | (3) |
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5.7 Influence of the Atmosphere |
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219 | (19) |
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5.7.1 Impairments caused by rain |
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220 | (14) |
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234 | (2) |
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5.7.3 Link impairments - relative importance |
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236 | (1) |
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5.7.4 Link performance under rain conditions |
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236 | (1) |
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237 | (1) |
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5.8 Mitigation of Atmospheric Impairments |
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238 | (3) |
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5.8.1 Depolarisation mitigation |
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238 | (1) |
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5.8.2 Attenuation mitigation |
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238 | (1) |
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238 | (1) |
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239 | (1) |
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5.8.5 Cost-availability trade-off |
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240 | (1) |
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5.9 Overall Link Performance with Transparent Satellite |
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241 | (11) |
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5.9.1 Characteristics of the satellite channel |
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242 | (3) |
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5.9.2 Expression for (C/N0)T |
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245 | (3) |
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5.9.3 Overall link performance for a transparent satellite without interference or intermodulation |
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248 | (4) |
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5.10 Overall Link Performance with Regenerative Satellite |
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252 | (5) |
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5.10.1 Linear satellite channel without interference |
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253 | (1) |
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5.10.2 Nonlinear satellite channel without interference |
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254 | (1) |
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5.10.3 Nonlinear satellite channel with interference |
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255 | (2) |
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5.11 Link Performance with Multibeam Antenna Coverage vs. Monobeam Coverage |
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257 | (8) |
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5.11.1 Advantages of multibeam coverage |
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258 | (5) |
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5.11.2 Disadvantages of multibeam coverage |
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263 | (2) |
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265 | (1) |
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5.12 Intersatellite Link Performance |
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265 | (8) |
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265 | (1) |
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5.12.2 Radio-frequency links |
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265 | (1) |
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266 | (7) |
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273 | (1) |
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273 | (2) |
6 Multiple Access |
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275 | (50) |
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6.1 Layered Data Transmission |
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275 | (1) |
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276 | (4) |
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276 | (1) |
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6.2.2 Call blocking probability |
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276 | (2) |
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278 | (1) |
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6.2.4 Call delay probability |
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278 | (2) |
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280 | (1) |
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6.3.1 One carrier per station-to-station link |
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281 | (1) |
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6.3.2 One carrier per transmitting station |
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281 | (1) |
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281 | (1) |
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281 | (3) |
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6.4.1 Access to a particular satellite channel (or transponder) |
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281 | (2) |
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6.4.2 Multiple access to the satellite repeater |
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283 | (1) |
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6.4.3 Performance evaluation - efficiency |
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284 | (1) |
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6.5 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) |
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284 | (6) |
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284 | (1) |
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284 | (1) |
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6.5.3 Adjacent channel interference |
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285 | (1) |
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286 | (3) |
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289 | (1) |
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289 | (1) |
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6.6 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) |
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290 | (13) |
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291 | (3) |
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294 | (1) |
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294 | (2) |
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296 | (4) |
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300 | (2) |
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302 | (1) |
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6.7 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) |
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303 | (11) |
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6.7.1 Direct sequence (DS-CDMA) |
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303 | (4) |
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6.7.2 Frequency hopping CDMA (FH-CDMA) |
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307 | (1) |
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308 | (1) |
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309 | (2) |
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311 | (2) |
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313 | (1) |
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6.8 Fixed And On-Demand Assignment |
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314 | (3) |
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314 | (1) |
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6.8.2 Comparison between fixed and on-demand assignment |
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315 | (1) |
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6.8.3 Centralised or distributed management of on-demand assignment |
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315 | (1) |
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316 | (1) |
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317 | (5) |
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6.9.1 Asynchronous protocols |
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317 | (4) |
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6.9.2 Protocols with synchronisation |
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321 | (1) |
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6.9.3 Protocols with assignment on demand |
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321 | (1) |
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322 | (1) |
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323 | (2) |
7 Satellite Networks |
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325 | (76) |
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7.1 Network Reference Models and Protocols |
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325 | (4) |
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325 | (1) |
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7.1.2 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model |
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326 | (1) |
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327 | (2) |
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7.2 Reference Architecture for Satellite Networks |
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329 | (1) |
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7.3 Basic Characteristics of Satellite Networks |
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330 | (4) |
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7.3.1 Satellite network topology |
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330 | (2) |
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332 | (1) |
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333 | (1) |
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7.4 Satellite On-Board Connectivity |
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334 | (13) |
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7.4.1 On-board connectivity with transponder hopping |
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335 | (1) |
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7.4.2 On-board connectivity with transparent processing |
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336 | (6) |
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7.4.3 On-board connectivity with regenerative processing |
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342 | (4) |
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7.4.4 On-board connectivity with beam scanning (BFN - beam-forming network) |
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346 | (1) |
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7.5 Connectivity Through Intersatellite Links (ISLs) |
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347 | (6) |
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7.5.1 Links between geostationary and low earth orbit satellites (GEO-LEO) |
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347 | (1) |
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7.5.2 Links between geostationary satellites (GEO-GEO) |
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348 | (5) |
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7.5.3 Links between low earth orbit satellites (LEO-LEO) |
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353 | (1) |
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353 | (1) |
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7.6 Satellite Broadcast Networks |
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353 | (3) |
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7.6.1 Single uplink (one programme) per satellite channel |
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354 | (1) |
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7.6.2 Several programmes per satellite channel |
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354 | (1) |
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7.6.3 Single uplink with time division multiplexing (TDM) of programmes |
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355 | (1) |
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7.6.4 Multiple uplinks with time division multiplexing (TDM) of programmes on downlink |
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355 | (1) |
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7.7 Broadband Satellite Networks |
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356 | (31) |
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7.7.1 Overview of DVB-RCS/RCS2 and DVB-S/S2/S2X networks |
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357 | (2) |
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7.7.2 Protocol stack architecture for broadband satellite networks |
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359 | (1) |
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7.7.3 Physical layer and MAC layer |
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360 | (7) |
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7.7.4 Satellite MAC layer |
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367 | (6) |
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7.7.5 Satellite Link Control layer |
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373 | (3) |
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376 | (3) |
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379 | (3) |
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7.7.8 Regenerative satellite mesh network architecture |
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382 | (5) |
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7.8 Transmission Control Protocol |
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387 | (6) |
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7.8.1 TCP segment header format |
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388 | (1) |
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7.8.2 Connection setup and data transmission |
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389 | (1) |
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7.8.3 Congestion control and flow control |
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389 | (1) |
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7.8.4 Impact of satellite channel characteristics on TCP |
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390 | (2) |
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7.8.5 TCP performance enhancement (PEP) protocols |
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392 | (1) |
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7.9 IPV6 Over Satellite Networks |
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393 | (3) |
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394 | (1) |
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395 | (1) |
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7.9.3 IPv6 tunnelling through satellite networks |
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395 | (1) |
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7.9.4 6to4 translation via satellite networks |
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396 | (1) |
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396 | (1) |
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397 | (4) |
8 Earth Stations |
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401 | (78) |
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401 | (1) |
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8.2 Radio-Frequency Characteristics |
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402 | (13) |
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8.2.1 Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) |
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402 | (2) |
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8.2.2 Figure of merit of the station |
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404 | (1) |
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8.2.3 Standards defined by international organisations and satellite operators |
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405 | (10) |
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8.3 The Antenna Subsystem |
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415 | (35) |
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8.3.1 Radiation characteristics (main lobe) |
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415 | (4) |
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8.3.2 Side-lobe radiation |
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419 | (1) |
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8.3.3 Antenna noise temperature |
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420 | (5) |
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425 | (4) |
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8.3.5 Pointing angles of an earth station antenna |
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429 | (3) |
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8.3.6 Mountings to permit antenna pointing |
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432 | (7) |
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439 | (11) |
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8.4 The Radio-Frequency Subsystem |
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450 | (9) |
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8.4.1 Receiving equipment |
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450 | (2) |
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8.4.2 Transmission equipment |
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452 | (7) |
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459 | (1) |
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8.5 Communication Subsystems |
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459 | (7) |
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8.5.1 Frequency translation |
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460 | (2) |
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8.5.2 Amplification, filtering, and equalisation |
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462 | (2) |
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464 | (2) |
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8.6 The Network Interface Subsystem |
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466 | (8) |
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8.6.1 Multiplexing and demultiplexing |
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468 | (1) |
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8.6.2 Digital speech interpolation (DSI) |
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468 | (1) |
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8.6.3 Digital circuit multiplication equipment (DCME) |
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469 | (3) |
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8.6.4 Equipment specific to SCPC transmission |
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472 | (1) |
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8.6.5 Ethernet port for IP network connections |
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472 | (2) |
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8.7 Monitoring and Control; Auxiliary Equipment |
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474 | (2) |
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8.7.1 Monitoring, alarms, and control (MAC) equipment |
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475 | (1) |
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475 | (1) |
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476 | (1) |
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476 | (3) |
9 The Communication Payload |
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479 | (94) |
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9.1 Mission and Characteristics of the Payload |
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479 | (3) |
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9.1.1 Functions of the payload |
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479 | (1) |
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9.1.2 Characterisation of the payload |
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480 | (1) |
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9.1.3 The relationship between the radio-frequency characteristics |
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481 | (1) |
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482 | (27) |
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9.2.1 Characterisation of nonlinearities |
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482 | (9) |
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9.2.2 Repeater organisation |
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491 | (6) |
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9.2.3 Equipment characteristics |
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497 | (12) |
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9.3 Regenerative Repeater |
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509 | (2) |
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9.3.1 Coherent demodulation |
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510 | (1) |
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9.3.2 Differential demodulation |
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510 | (1) |
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9.3.3 Multicarrier demodulation |
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511 | (1) |
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9.4 Multibeam Antenna Payload |
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511 | (9) |
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9.4.1 Fixed interconnection |
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512 | (1) |
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9.4.2 Reconfigurable (semi-fixed) interconnection |
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512 | (1) |
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9.4.3 Transparent on-board time domain switching |
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513 | (2) |
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9.4.4 On-board frequency domain transparent switching |
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515 | (1) |
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9.4.5 Baseband regenerative switching |
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516 | (2) |
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518 | (2) |
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9.5 Introduction to Flexible Payloads |
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520 | (2) |
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9.6 Solid State Equipment Technology |
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522 | (1) |
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522 | (1) |
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9.6.2 Analogue microwave component technology |
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522 | (1) |
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9.6.3 Digital component technology |
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523 | (1) |
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|
523 | (20) |
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9.7.1 Service zone contour |
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524 | (3) |
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9.7.2 Geometrical contour |
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527 | (1) |
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527 | (2) |
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9.7.4 Reduced or spot coverage |
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529 | (2) |
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9.7.5 Evaluation of antenna pointing error |
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|
531 | (11) |
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542 | (1) |
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9.8 Antenna Characteristics |
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543 | (26) |
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543 | (1) |
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544 | (1) |
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545 | (3) |
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548 | (1) |
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9.8.5 The influence of depointing |
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549 | (3) |
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552 | (1) |
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553 | (3) |
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556 | (3) |
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9.8.9 Antenna technologies |
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559 | (10) |
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|
569 | (1) |
|
|
569 | (4) |
10 The Platform |
|
573 | (86) |
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|
575 | (1) |
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|
576 | (19) |
|
10.2.1 Attitude control functions |
|
|
576 | (1) |
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|
577 | (2) |
|
10.2.3 Attitude determination |
|
|
579 | (3) |
|
|
582 | (2) |
|
10.2.5 The principle of gyroscopic stabilisation |
|
|
584 | (2) |
|
10.2.6 Spin stabilisation |
|
|
586 | (2) |
|
10.2.7 Three-axis stabilisation |
|
|
588 | (7) |
|
10.3 The Propulsion Subsystem |
|
|
595 | (15) |
|
10.3.1 Characteristics of thrusters |
|
|
595 | (2) |
|
10.3.2 Chemical propulsion |
|
|
597 | (4) |
|
10.3.3 Electric propulsion |
|
|
601 | (5) |
|
10.3.4 Organisation of the propulsion subsystem |
|
|
606 | (3) |
|
10.3.5 Electric propulsion for station-keeping and orbit transfer |
|
|
609 | (1) |
|
10.4 The Electric Power Supply |
|
|
610 | (19) |
|
10.4.1 Primary energy sources |
|
|
611 | (6) |
|
10.4.2 Secondary energy sources |
|
|
617 | (6) |
|
10.4.3 Conditioning and protection circuits |
|
|
623 | (5) |
|
10.4.4 Example calculations |
|
|
628 | (1) |
|
10.5 Telemetry, Tracking, and Command (TTC) and On-Board Data Handling (OBDH) |
|
|
629 | (19) |
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|
630 | (1) |
|
10.5.2 The telecommand links |
|
|
631 | (1) |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
10.5.4 Telecommand (TC) and telemetry (TM) message format standards |
|
|
633 | (6) |
|
10.5.5 On-board data handling (OBDH) |
|
|
639 | (5) |
|
|
644 | (4) |
|
10.6 Thermal Control and Structure |
|
|
648 | (7) |
|
10.6.1 Thermal control specifications |
|
|
648 | (2) |
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|
650 | (3) |
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|
653 | (1) |
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|
654 | (1) |
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
10.7 Developments and Trends |
|
|
655 | (3) |
|
|
658 | (1) |
11 Satellite Installation And Launch Vehicles |
|
659 | (62) |
|
11.1 Installation in Orbit |
|
|
659 | (26) |
|
|
659 | (2) |
|
11.1.2 Calculation of the required velocity increments |
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
11.1.3 Inclination coliection and circularisation |
|
|
662 | (9) |
|
11.1.4 The apogee (or perigee) motor |
|
|
671 | (6) |
|
11.1.5 Injection into orbit with a conventional launcher |
|
|
677 | (2) |
|
11.1.6 Injection into orbit from a quasi-circular low altitude orbit |
|
|
679 | (2) |
|
11.1.7 Operations during installation (station acquisition) |
|
|
681 | (2) |
|
11.1.8 Injection into orbits other than geostationary (non-GEO orbits) |
|
|
683 | (2) |
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
|
685 | (34) |
|
|
686 | (1) |
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|
686 | (4) |
|
11.2.3 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) |
|
|
690 | (6) |
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|
696 | (8) |
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|
704 | (1) |
|
|
705 | (1) |
|
|
705 | (3) |
|
|
708 | (1) |
|
11.2.9 United States of America |
|
|
708 | (10) |
|
11.2.10 Reusable launch vehicles |
|
|
718 | (1) |
|
11.2.11 Cost of installation in orbit |
|
|
719 | (1) |
|
|
719 | (2) |
12 The Space Environment |
|
721 | (16) |
|
|
721 | (1) |
|
|
721 | (1) |
|
|
722 | (1) |
|
12.2 The Mechanical Environment |
|
|
722 | (4) |
|
12.2.1 The gravitational field |
|
|
722 | (2) |
|
12.2.2 The earth's magnetic field |
|
|
724 | (1) |
|
12.2.3 Solar radiation pressure |
|
|
725 | (1) |
|
12.2.4 Meteorites and material particles |
|
|
725 | (1) |
|
12.2.5 Torques of internal origin |
|
|
726 | (1) |
|
12.2.6 The effect of communication transmissions |
|
|
726 | (1) |
|
|
726 | (1) |
|
|
726 | (4) |
|
|
727 | (1) |
|
|
728 | (1) |
|
|
728 | (2) |
|
12.3.4 Effects on materials 73i) |
|
|
|
12.4 Flux of High-Energy Particles |
|
|
730 | (4) |
|
|
730 | (1) |
|
12.4.2 Effects on materials |
|
|
731 | (3) |
|
12.5 The Environment During Installation |
|
|
734 | (1) |
|
12.5.1 The environment during launching |
|
|
734 | (1) |
|
12.5.2 Environment in the transfer orbit |
|
|
734 | (1) |
|
|
735 | (2) |
13 Reliability And Availability Of Satellite Communications Systems |
|
737 | (18) |
|
13.1 Introduction to Reliability |
|
|
737 | (4) |
|
|
737 | (1) |
|
13.1.2 The probability of survival, or reliability |
|
|
738 | (1) |
|
13.1.3 Failure probability or unreliability |
|
|
739 | (1) |
|
13.1.4 Mean time to failure (MTTF) |
|
|
739 | (1) |
|
13.1.5 Mean satellite lifetime |
|
|
740 | (1) |
|
13.1.6 Reliability during the wear-out period |
|
|
741 | (1) |
|
13.2 Satellite System Availability |
|
|
741 | (2) |
|
13.2.1 No backup satellite in orbit |
|
|
742 | (1) |
|
13.2.2 Backup satellite in orbit |
|
|
742 | (1) |
|
|
742 | (1) |
|
13.3 Subsystem Reliability |
|
|
743 | (6) |
|
13.3.1 Elements in series |
|
|
743 | (1) |
|
13.3.2 Elements in parallel (static redundancy) |
|
|
744 | (1) |
|
13.3.3 Dynamic redundancy (with switching) |
|
|
745 | (4) |
|
13.3.4 Equipment having several failure modes |
|
|
749 | (1) |
|
13.4 Component Reliability |
|
|
749 | (5) |
|
13.4.1 Component reliability |
|
|
749 | (2) |
|
13.4.2 Component selection |
|
|
751 | (1) |
|
|
752 | (1) |
|
|
752 | (2) |
|
|
754 | (1) |
Index |
|
755 | |