School Finance: A Policy Perspective 4th Revised edition [Kõva köide]

Preface		xvii
Introduction to and Overview of School Finance		1	(28)
The Scope of Education Finance in the United States		3	(4)
Enrollment		3	(1)
Schools and School Districts		3	(2)
The Impact on the Economy		5	(1)
School Revenues and Expenditures		6	(1)
Early Developments in School Finance		7	(5)
The First Schools		7	(2)
The Growing Importance of State Governments		9	(1)
The Continuing Evolution of the State Role		10	(2)
Evolution of the School Finance Problem		12	(14)
Traditional Fiscal Disparities		12	(6)
Solutions to School Finance Inequities		18	(1)
A Different Type of School Finance Problem		19	(5)
The School Finance Problem as Fiscal Adequacy		24	(2)
The School Finance Problem as Productivity		26	(1)
Summary		26	(1)
Study Questions		27	(2)
Legal Issues in School Finance		29	(22)
The Legal Background of School Finance Litigation		30	(1)
The Three ``Waves'' of School Finance Litigation		31	(1)
The First Wave: Federal Equal Protection Litigation		31	(6)
The Strict Scrutiny Test		32	(1)
The Rational Basis Test		33	(1)
The Early Cases		33	(1)
Fiscal Neutrality		34	(3)
The Second Wave: State Law Equity Cases		37	(2)
The Third Wave: Adequacy		39	(9)
Giving Meaning to the Education Clause		39	(2)
``Pre-Adequacy'' Cases		41	(1)
Adequacy Case		42	(1)
Conflicts between the Courts and the Legislation		43	(1)
Rulings with More Explicit Remedies		44	(3)
Adequacy and Standards		47	(1)
Does Adequacy Require Equal Outcomes?		48	(1)
Summary		48	(1)
A School Finance Legal Scorecard		49	(1)
Study Questions		49	(2)
A Framework for Assessing Equity and Adequacy in School Finance		51	(35)
Does Money Matter?		52	(3)
Equity in School Finance		55	(20)
Ex Ante Versus Ex Post		56	(1)
The Unit of Analysis		57	(2)
Objects of Interest		59	(4)
The Group		63	(1)
Equity Concepts		64	(11)
Adequacy		75	(6)
Links to Litigation and School Finance Formulas		75	(1)
Measuring Adequacy		76	(1)
Setting the Adequacy Spending Level		77	(4)
Summary		81	(4)
Study Questions		85	(1)
Adequate Staffing and Resources for America's Schools		86	(65)
A Definition of Adequacy		87	(1)
General Issues for Determining Adequate School Resources		88	(6)
Preschool		88	(1)
Student Count for Calculating State Aid		89	(1)
Full-Day Kindergarten		90	(1)
School Size		90	(4)
Adequate Staffing for the Core Programs in Prototypical Schools		94	(5)
Core Teachers/Class Size		94	(3)
Specialist Teachers and Planning and Preparation Time/Collaborative Professional Development		97	(1)
Instructional Factilitators/School-Based Coaches/Mentors		98	(1)
Staffing for Extra Student Needs		99	(16)
Indicators of Struggling Students		100	(1)
Tutors		100	(3)
English-Language-Learning (ELL) Students		103	(1)
Extended-Day Programs		104	(2)
Summer School		106	(3)
Special Education		109	(2)
Gifted, Talented, Able, and Ambitious Students		111	(3)
Career and Technical Education		114	(1)
Additional Staffing and Resource Needs		115	(16)
Substitute Teachers		115	(1)
Student Support/Family Outreach		115	(2)
Aides		117	(1)
Librarians		117	(1)
The Principal		118	(2)
School Site Secretarial Staff		120	(1)
Intensive Professional Development		120	(3)
Technology and Equipment		123	(3)
Instructional Materials		126	(3)
Student Activities		129	(1)
Size Adjustments		129	(2)
Summary		131	(1)
Appendix: A History of Special-Needs Programs		131	(18)
Types of Programs		133	(7)
General Approaches to Formula Adjustments for Special-Needs Students		140	(9)
Study Questions		149	(2)
Financing Educational Facilities		151	(28)
The Condition of School Facilities in the United States		152	(3)
Court Rulings on School Facilities		153	(2)
Financing School Facility Construction and Repair		155	(19)
General Obligation Bonds		156	(4)
State Assistance for School Facilities		160	(1)
District Facility Needs		160	(1)
Long-Term Costs of State Facility Programs		161	(8)
Facilities Funding in Kentucky: A Comprehensive Approach		169	(4)
Assessing the Equity of School Facility Funding		173	(1)
The Impact of School Facilities on Student Performance		174	(3)
Summary		177	(1)
Study Questions		178	(1)
Allocation and Use of the Education Dollar		179	(27)
Changes in Educational Resources Over Time		180	(7)
Changes in the Level of Resources		180	(1)
Educational Expenditures by Function		180	(3)
Changes in the Use of Education Resources over Time		183	(2)
Another Way to View the Allocation of Educational Resources		185	(2)
School-Level Expenditures in an Era of Educational Adequacy		187	(14)
Frameworks for Collecting and Arraying School-Level Expenditures		193	(8)
Summary		201	(3)
Study Questions		204	(2)
Using Education Resources More Effectively		206	(28)
Changes in Category 1 Resources: Core Instruction		207	(11)
Resource Reallocation		208	(1)
Reducing Class Size in Grades K--3 and Expanding Half-Day Kindergarten to Full Day		209	(2)
Class Sizes in Small Schools		211	(2)
District-Level Resource Reallocation: The Case of Professional Development		213	(2)
Restructuring to Bolster Several Resources in the Core Program		215	(3)
A Final Word		218	(1)
Changes in Category 2 Resources: Specialists and Student Support		218	(4)
Reallocating Categorical Staff Resources		218	(3)
A Final Word		221	(1)
Changes in the Category 3 Resources: Overhead		222	(2)
Transporting Pupils: The Foshay Bus		222	(1)
Linking the Community Through Food Services		223	(1)
Improving Energy Management		223	(1)
A Final Word		224	(1)
Allocating Resources Using the Evidence-Based Adequacy Model		224	(7)
Summary		231	(1)
Study Questions		232	(2)
School District Budgeting		234	(29)
Defining Budgets		235	(2)
Approaches to Budgeting		237	(2)
Budget Preparation		239	(14)
School Site Budgets		239	(3)
The District Budget Process		242	(3)
Estimating Expenditures		245	(1)
Accounting for Expenditures and Revenues		246	(6)
Budget Preparation Summary		252	(1)
Budget Modification		252	(1)
Budget Approval		253	(1)
Administering the Budget		253	(1)
Budget Implementation		253	(7)
Distribution of Funds to the School Site		254	(1)
Allocation of Nonstaff Resources		255	(3)
Case Study: Seattle		258	(1)
Case Study: San Francisco		259	(1)
Summary		260	(2)
Study Questions		262	(1)
School Finance Structures: Formula Options		263	(59)
Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations		264	(8)
Advantages of a Federal Approach to Financing Education		264	(2)
Intergovernmental Grants and Their Objectives		266	(6)
School Finance Formulas		272	(40)
Equity and Adequacy of the Simulation		272	(4)
Flat Grant Programs		276	(7)
Foundation Programs		283	(10)
Guaranteed Tax Base Programs		293	(10)
Combination Foundation and Guaranteed Tax Base Programs		303	(8)
Full-State-Funding and State-Determined Spending Programs		311	(1)
Adjustments for Price Differences		312	(2)
Simulation of Adjustments for Special-Needs Students		314	(2)
Summary		316	(2)
Suggested Problems		318	(4)
The Public Finance Context		322	(42)
Taxation Overview		325	(2)
Trends in Federal, State, and Local Taxation		325	(1)
Changes in Tax Structures		326	(1)
Assessing and Understanding Taxation		327	(8)
Public Finance Criteria for Evaluating Taxes		328	(7)
Analysis of Individual Taxes		335	(27)
The Income Tax		335	(7)
The Sales Tax		342	(6)
The Property Tax		348	(12)
Lotteries		360	(2)
Summary		362	(1)
Study Questions		363	(1)
Improving State School Finance Systems		364	(30)
A Framework for Analysis		364	(2)
School Finance in Wisconsin		366	(10)
The Wisconsin School Finance Problem		368	(2)
Improving the Wisconsin School Finance System		370	(6)
School Finance in Illinois		376	(5)
The Illinois School Finance Problem		376	(3)
Improving the Illinois School Finance System		379	(2)
School Finance in Kentucky		381	(4)
Adjusted Base Guarantee		383	(2)
The Kentucky School Finance Problem and Simulated Improvements		385	(1)
School Finance in Vermont		385	(4)
The Vermont School Finance Problem		386	(2)
Improving the Vermont School Finance System		388	(1)
Summary		389	(3)
Study Questions		392	(1)
Essay Assignment		393	(1)
Redesigning Teacher Salary Structures		394	(26)
Changing the Way Teachers Are Paid		395	(3)
Why Change the Teacher Salary Schedule		395	(1)
Linking Teacher Pay Changes to Core Educational Goals		396	(1)
Setting New Goals and Objectives for Teacher Compensation		397	(1)
The Elements of Teacher Salary Structures		398	(2)
Determining Adequate Beginning and Average Teacher Pay Levels		400	(2)
Competition in the Education Labor Market		401	(1)
Competition in the Broader Labor Market		401	(1)
Beginning Salary Benchmarks		401	(1)
Average Salary Benchmarks		402	(1)
Adjustments to Salaries		402	(1)
Paying Wage Premiums		402	(3)
When Are Wage Premiums Necessary?		402	(1)
How Large Should Wage Premiums Be?		403	(1)
Should the Wage Premium Be Coupled with an Effectiveness Criterion?		404	(1)
Are Wage Premiums Needed for Urban and Rural Districts?		405	(1)
Base Pay Progression Elements That Reinforce Better Instruction		405	(4)
Structuring Bonuses Based on Improvements in Student Learning		409	(8)
Performance Elements		410	(1)
Performance Measures		410	(1)
Performance Improvement Targets		411	(2)
Bonus Payout Structures: Balanced Scorecards		413	(2)
Individual versus Whole-School Bonuses		415	(1)
Cost Estimates and Overruns		416	(1)
Effective Processes for Designing and Implementing Teacher Pay Changes		417	(1)
Summary		418	(1)
Study Questions		418	(2)
Appendix: Using the Simulation		420	(5)
Glossary		425	(6)
References		431	(31)
Name Index		462	(7)
Subject Index		469

Allan R. Odden is a Professor of Educational Administration at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He is also Co-Director of the Consortium for Policy Research in Education (CPRE), which is funded by the U.S. Department of Education, the director of the CPRE Education Finance Research Program, and principal investigator for the CPRE Teacher Compensation project, funded by the Pew Charitable Trusts and the Carnegie Corporation. CPRE is a consortium of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Pennsylvania, Harvard, Michigan, and Stanford Universities. He formerly was professor of Education Policy and Administration at the University of Southern California and Director of Policy Analysis for California Education (PACE), an educational policy studies consortium of USC, Stanford University, and the University of California, Berkeley. Odden is an international expert on education finance, school-based financing, resource allocation and use, educational policy, school-based management, teacher compensation, district and school decentralization, education incentives, and educational policy implementation. He worked with the Education Commission of the States for a decade, serving as assistant executive director, director of policy analysis and research, and director of its educational finance center. He was president of the American Educational Finance Association in 1979-80, and served as research director for special state educational finance projects in Connecticut (1974-75), Missouri (1975-77), South Dakota (1975-77), New York (1979-81), Texas (1988), New Jersey (1991), and Missouri (1992-93). In 1999, he directed research projects on school finance redesign, resource reallocation, and teacher compensation. He was appointed Special Court Master to the Remand Judge in the New Jersey Abbot v. Burke school financial court case for 1997 and 1998. Odden has written widely, publishing over 170 journal articles, book chapters, and research reports, and 20 books and monographs. He has consulted for governors, state legislators, chief state school officers, national and local unions, The National Alliance for Business, the Business Roundtable, New American Schools, the U.S. Congress, the U.S. Secretary of Education, many local school districts, the state departments of education in Victoria and Queensland, Australia, and the Department for Education and Employment in England. His books include Financing Schools for High Performance: Strategies for Improving the Use of Educational Resources (Jossey-Bass, 1998) with Carolyn Busch; Paying Teachers for What They Know and Do: New and Smarter Compensation Strategies to Improve Schools (Corwin Press, 1997) with Carolyn Kelley; Educational Leadership for America's Schools (McGraw-Hill, 1995); Rethinking School Finance: An Agenda for the 1990s (Jossey-Bass, 1992); School Finance: A Policy Perspective (McGraw-Hill, 1992) co-authored with Lawrence Picus; Education Policy Implementation (State University of New York Press, 1991); and School Finance and School Improvement: Linkages for the 1980s (Ballinger, 1983). Odden was a mathematics teacher and curriculum developer in New York City's East Harlem for five years. He received his Ph.D. and M.A. degrees from Columbia University, a Masters of Divinity from the Union Theological Seminary, and his B.S. from Brown University. Lawrence O. Picus is a Professor in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California. He serves as the director of the Center for Research in Education Finance (CREF), a research center in the School of Education at the University of Southern California. CREF research focuses on issues of school finance and productivity. He has also conducted research on the costs of alternative assessment programs for the Center for Research on Evaluation, Student Standards and Testing (CRESST) at UCLA. Picus is past-president of the American Education Finance Association. He is a co-author of Principles of School Business Administration (ASBO, 1995) with R. Craig Wood, David Thompson, and Don I. Tharpe. In addition, he is the senior editor of the 1995 yearbook of the American Education Finance Association, Where Does the Money Go? Resource Allocation in Elementary and Secondary Schools (Corwin, 1995). He has published numerous articles in professional journals as well. Picus' teaching responsibilities include courses in school finance, educational policy, school business administration, school district budgeting, economics of education, the politics of education in the United States, and the application of computers to school district management. In his role with CREF, he is involved with studies of how educational resources are allocated and used in schools across the United States. He has also conducted studies on the impact of incentives on school district performance. Picus maintains close contact with the superintendents and chief business officers of school districts throughout California and the nation, and is a member of a number of professional organizations dedicated to improving school district management. He also serves as a consultant to the National Education Association, American Federation of Teachers, the National Center for Educational Statistics, WestEd and the states of Vermont, Washington, and Arkansas. Prior to coming to USC, Picus spent four years at the RAND Corporation, where he earned a Ph.D. in Public Policy Analysis. He holds a Masters Degree in Social Science from the University of Chicago, and a Bachelor's degree in Economics from Reed College. He has a strong background in research design, statistics, and econometrics.