In Memory of George W. Stimson |
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xiii | |
Preface |
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xv | |
Publisher's Note |
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xvii | |
Technical Editors |
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xix | |
Expert Contributors |
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xxi | |
Reviewer Acknowledgments |
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xxiii | |
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xxv | |
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PART I Overview of Airborne Radar |
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3 | (12) |
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3 | (1) |
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4 | (2) |
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1.3 Determining Target Position |
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6 | (3) |
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9 | (1) |
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10 | (2) |
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12 | (3) |
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13 | (2) |
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Chapter 2 Approaches to Implementation |
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15 | (22) |
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2.1 Noncoherent Pulsed Radar |
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15 | (9) |
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18 | (3) |
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21 | (2) |
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23 | (1) |
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2.2 Coherent Pulse-Doppler Radar |
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24 | (7) |
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The Remarkable Gridded Traveling Wave Tube |
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25 | (5) |
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Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits |
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30 | (1) |
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31 | (3) |
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34 | (3) |
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35 | (2) |
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Chapter 3 Representative Applications |
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37 | (16) |
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37 | (2) |
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Representative Airborne Radar Applications |
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38 | (1) |
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39 | (3) |
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42 | (2) |
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3.4 Reconnaissance and Surveillance |
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44 | (2) |
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3.5 Fighter/Interceptor Mission Support |
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46 | (1) |
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3.6 Air-to-Ground Targeting |
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47 | (2) |
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49 | (1) |
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49 | (4) |
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Proximity Fuses: Then and Now |
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49 | (1) |
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49 | (4) |
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PART II Essential Groundwork |
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Chapter 4 Radio Waves and Alternating Current Signals |
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53 | (10) |
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4.1 Nature of Radio Waves |
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53 | (3) |
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4.2 Characteristics of Radio Waves |
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56 | (5) |
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The Speed of Light and Radio Waves |
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57 | (1) |
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Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction |
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58 | (3) |
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61 | (2) |
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62 | (1) |
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Chapter 5 A Nonmathematical Approach to Radar |
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63 | (14) |
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5.1 How a Phasor Represents a Signal |
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63 | (2) |
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5.2 Combining Signals of Different Phase |
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65 | (1) |
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5.3 Combining Signals of Different Frequency |
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66 | (4) |
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5.4 Resolving Signals into In-Phase and Quadrature Components |
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70 | (4) |
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72 | (2) |
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74 | (3) |
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Some Relationships to Keep in Mind |
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75 | (1) |
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75 | (2) |
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Chapter 6 Preparatory Math for Radar |
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77 | (20) |
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6.1 Signal Classification |
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77 | (1) |
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78 | (1) |
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79 | (3) |
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6.4 The Fourier Transform |
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82 | (3) |
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6.5 Statistics and Probability |
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85 | (5) |
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6.6 Convolution, Cross-Correlation, and Autocorrelation |
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90 | (3) |
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93 | (4) |
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94 | (3) |
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PART III Fundamentals of Radar |
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Chapter 7 Choice of Radio Frequency |
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97 | (10) |
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7.1 Frequencies Used for Radar |
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97 | (1) |
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98 | (1) |
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7.3 Influence of Frequency on Radar Performance |
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99 | (3) |
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101 | (1) |
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7.4 Selecting the Optimum Frequency |
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102 | (2) |
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104 | (3) |
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105 | (2) |
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Chapter 8 Directivity and the Antenna Beam |
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107 | (18) |
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8.1 Distribution of Radiated Energy in Angle |
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107 | (5) |
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110 | (1) |
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Two Common Types of Airborne Radar Antennas |
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111 | (1) |
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8.2 Characteristics of the Radiation Pattern |
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112 | (4) |
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Relationship Between Antenna Gain and Effective Area |
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114 | (2) |
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8.3 Electronic Beam Steering |
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116 | (1) |
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117 | (1) |
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118 | (4) |
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How to Calculate the Radiation Pattern for a Linear Array |
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121 | (1) |
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8.6 Antenna Beams for Ground Mapping |
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122 | (1) |
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122 | (3) |
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123 | (2) |
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Chapter 9 Electronically Scanned Array Antennas |
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125 | (10) |
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125 | (1) |
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Phase Shift Needed to Steer the Beam |
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126 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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9.3 Time Delay for Wideband Applications |
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127 | (1) |
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9.4 Shared Advantages of Passive and Active ESAs |
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128 | (2) |
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9.5 Additional Advantages of the Active ESA |
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130 | (1) |
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Limitation on Field of Regard |
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130 | (1) |
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9.6 Key Limitations and Their Circumvention |
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131 | (1) |
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9.7 Trend toward Digital Beamforming |
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132 | (2) |
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134 | (1) |
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134 | (1) |
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Chapter 10 Electronically Scanned Array Design |
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135 | (14) |
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10.1 Considerations Common to Passive and Active ESAs |
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135 | (3) |
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136 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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10.2 Design of Passive ESAs |
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138 | (3) |
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139 | (2) |
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10.3 Design of Active ESAs |
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141 | (5) |
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Measures of Module Efficiency |
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144 | (2) |
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146 | (3) |
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147 | (2) |
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Chapter 11 Pulsed Operation |
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149 | (10) |
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11.1 Advantages of Pulsed Transmission |
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149 | (1) |
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150 | (3) |
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11.3 The Ambiguity Diagram |
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153 | (1) |
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11.4 Output Power and Transmitted Energy |
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153 | (3) |
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The Distinction Between Energy and Power |
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155 | (1) |
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156 | (1) |
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11.6 Some Relationships to Keep in Mind |
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156 | (3) |
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157 | (2) |
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Chapter 12 Detection Range |
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159 | (20) |
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12.1 What Determines Detection Range |
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159 | (1) |
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12.2 Electrical Background Noise |
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160 | (4) |
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How the Receiver Noise Figure Is Measured |
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161 | (3) |
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12.3 Energy of the Target Echo |
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164 | (5) |
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166 | (2) |
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168 | (1) |
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169 | (2) |
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12.5 Integration and Its Effect on Detection Range |
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171 | (3) |
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12.6 Postdetection Integration |
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174 | (2) |
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176 | (1) |
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12.8 Some Relationships to Keep in Mind |
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177 | (2) |
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177 | (2) |
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Chapter 13 The Range Equation: What It Does and Doesn't Tell Us |
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179 | (16) |
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13.1 General Range Equation |
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179 | (4) |
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13.2 Equation for Volume Search |
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183 | (2) |
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Tailoring the Range Equation to Volume Search |
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185 | (1) |
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13.3 Fluctuations in Radar Cross Section |
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185 | (1) |
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13.4 Detection Probability |
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186 | (4) |
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13.5 Cumulative Detection Probability |
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190 | (3) |
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191 | (1) |
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The Many forms of the Radar-Range Equation |
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192 | (1) |
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193 | (1) |
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13.7 Some Relationships to Keep in Mind |
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193 | (2) |
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194 | (1) |
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Chapter 14 Radar Receivers and Digitization |
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195 | (20) |
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196 | (1) |
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14.2 Low-Noise Amplification |
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196 | (1) |
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197 | (1) |
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198 | (3) |
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199 | (2) |
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201 | (2) |
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14.6 Spurious Signals and Spectral Purity |
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203 | (1) |
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203 | (4) |
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14.8 Radar Receiver Architectures |
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207 | (1) |
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14.9 Pulsed Noncoherent Receivers |
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207 | (1) |
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14.10 Pulsed Coherent Receiver with Baseband Digitization |
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208 | (1) |
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14.11 Pulsed Coherent Receiver with IF Digitization |
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209 | (1) |
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14.12 Multichannel Receivers |
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210 | (1) |
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14.13 Specialized Receivers |
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211 | (1) |
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212 | (3) |
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213 | (2) |
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Chapter 15 Measuring Range and Resolving in Range |
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215 | (14) |
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215 | (2) |
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217 | (2) |
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15.3 Eliminating Ambiguous Returns |
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219 | (1) |
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15.4 Resolving Ambiguities |
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220 | (4) |
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224 | (2) |
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15.6 Enhanced Pulse Tagging (Range-Gated High PRF) |
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226 | (1) |
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15.7 Single-Target Tracking |
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226 | (1) |
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15.8 Electronically Scanned Radars |
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227 | (1) |
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227 | (2) |
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228 | (1) |
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Chapter 16 Pulse Compression and High-Resolution Radar |
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229 | (16) |
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16.1 Pulse Compression: A Beneficial Complication |
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229 | (4) |
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16.2 Linear Frequency Modulation (Chirp) |
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233 | (5) |
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Stretch Processing of LFM Chirp |
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234 | (4) |
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238 | (5) |
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243 | (2) |
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244 | (1) |
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Chapter 17 Frequency-Modulated Continuous Wave Ranging |
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245 | (12) |
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245 | (1) |
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17.2 Accounting for the Doppler Shift |
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246 | (2) |
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248 | (4) |
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252 | (1) |
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253 | (4) |
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253 | (4) |
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PART IV Pulse Doppler Radar |
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Chapter 18 The Doppler Effect |
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257 | (10) |
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18.1 The Doppler Effect and Its Causes |
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257 | (1) |
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18.2 Where and How the Doppler Shift Takes Place |
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258 | (2) |
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18.3 Magnitude of the Doppler Frequency |
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260 | (2) |
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Doppler Shift in a Nutshell |
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262 | (1) |
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18.4 Doppler Frequency of an Aircraft |
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262 | (1) |
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18.5 Doppler Frequency of Ground Return |
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263 | (1) |
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18.6 Doppler Frequency Seen by a Semiactive Missile |
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264 | (1) |
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265 | (1) |
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18.8 Some Important Relationships to Keep in Mind |
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266 | (1) |
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266 | (1) |
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Chapter 19 The Spectrum of a Pulsed Signal |
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267 | (10) |
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267 | (2) |
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269 | (3) |
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Earlier Methods of Achieving Coherence |
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271 | (1) |
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19.3 Line Width versus the Duration of the Pulse Train |
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272 | (1) |
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273 | (2) |
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Results of the Experiments |
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274 | (1) |
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275 | (1) |
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19.6 Some Relationships to Keep in Mind |
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275 | (2) |
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275 | (2) |
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Chapter 20 The Pulsed Spectrum Unveiled |
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277 | (20) |
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277 | (7) |
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20.2 Spectrum Explained from a Filter's Point of View |
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284 | (4) |
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20.3 Mathematical Explanation of the Pulsed Spectrum |
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288 | (6) |
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Mathematical Explanation of the Pulsed Spectrum |
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288 | (6) |
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294 | (3) |
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295 | (2) |
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Chapter 21 Doppler Sensing and Digital Filtering |
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297 | (20) |
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297 | (3) |
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300 | (5) |
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How the Synchronous Detector Works |
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302 | (3) |
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21.3 Inputs to the Filter |
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305 | (2) |
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21.4 What the Digital Filter Does |
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307 | (4) |
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Algorithm for Approximating √I2 + J2 |
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311 | (1) |
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311 | (1) |
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21.6 Filtering Actual Signals |
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312 | (3) |
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315 | (2) |
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Some Relationships to Keep in Mind |
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316 | (1) |
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316 | (1) |
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Chapter 22 Measuring Range-Rate |
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317 | (12) |
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22.1 Range Differentiation |
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317 | (1) |
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318 | (2) |
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22.3 Potential Doppler Ambiguities |
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320 | (2) |
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22.4 Resolving Doppler Ambiguities |
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322 | (2) |
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324 | (5) |
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325 | (4) |
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Chapter 23 Sources and Spectra of Ground Return |
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329 | (16) |
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23.1 The Amplitude of the Ground Return |
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330 | (2) |
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23.2 Doppler Spectra of Ground Clutter Returns |
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332 | (7) |
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23.3 Relation of Clutter Spectrum to Target Frequencies |
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339 | (2) |
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23.4 Return from Objects on the Terrain |
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341 | (2) |
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343 | (2) |
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343 | (2) |
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Chapter 24 Effect of Range and Doppler Ambiguities on Ground Clutter |
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345 | (8) |
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24.1 Dispersed Nature of the Clutter |
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346 | (1) |
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347 | (3) |
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350 | (2) |
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352 | (1) |
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352 | (1) |
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Chapter 25 Representing Clutter |
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353 | (14) |
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354 | (3) |
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25.2 Limitations of the Noise Model for Ground Clutter |
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357 | (1) |
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25.3 Improved Clutter Models |
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358 | (1) |
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25.4 Other Characteristics of Ground Clutter |
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358 | (1) |
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359 | (1) |
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25.6 Predicting Detection Performance |
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360 | (4) |
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364 | (3) |
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364 | (1) |
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365 | (2) |
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Chapter 26 Separating Ground Moving Targets from Clutter |
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367 | (12) |
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367 | (1) |
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26.2 Problem of Detecting "Slow" Moving Targets |
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368 | (6) |
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368 | (3) |
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371 | (3) |
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26.3 Precise Angle Measurement |
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374 | (1) |
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375 | (4) |
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376 | (3) |
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PART VI Air-to-Air Operation |
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Chapter 27 PRF and Ambiguities |
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379 | (10) |
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27.1 Primary Consideration: Ambiguities |
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379 | (4) |
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27.2 The Three Basic Categories of PRF |
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383 | (4) |
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387 | (2) |
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388 | (1) |
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Chapter 28 Low PRF Operation |
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389 | (18) |
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28.1 Differentiating between Targets and Clutter |
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389 | (5) |
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392 | (2) |
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394 | (5) |
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The Classic Delay-Line Clutter Canceler |
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395 | (4) |
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28.3 Advantages and Limitations of Low PRF Operation |
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399 | (1) |
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28.4 Getting around the Limitations |
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399 | (5) |
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404 | (3) |
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405 | (2) |
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Chapter 29 Medium PRF Operation |
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407 | (12) |
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29.1 Differentiating between Targets and Clutter |
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407 | (3) |
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410 | (1) |
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29.3 Rejecting Ground Moving Targets |
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411 | (1) |
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29.4 Eliminating Blind Zones |
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412 | (3) |
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29.5 Minimizing Sidelobe Clutter |
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415 | (1) |
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29.6 Sidelobe Return from Targets of Large RCS |
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416 | (2) |
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418 | (1) |
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418 | (1) |
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Chapter 30 High PRF Operation |
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419 | (14) |
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420 | (1) |
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30.2 Isolating the Target Returns |
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420 | (3) |
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423 | (2) |
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425 | (2) |
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30.5 Problem of Eclipsing |
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427 | (1) |
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30.6 Improving Tail Aspect Performance |
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428 | (2) |
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Illuminating Targets for Semiactive Missile Guidance |
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430 | (1) |
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430 | (3) |
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431 | (2) |
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Chapter 31 Automatic Tracking |
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433 | (12) |
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31.1 Single-Target Tracking |
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434 | (4) |
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Common Coordinate Systems |
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437 | (1) |
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438 | (2) |
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440 | (1) |
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441 | (4) |
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442 | (3) |
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Chapter 32 Radar and Resolution |
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445 | (10) |
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32.1 How Resolution is Defined |
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446 | (1) |
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32.2 Factors Influencing Choice of Resolution Cell Size |
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446 | (5) |
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32.3 Achieving Fine Resolution |
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451 | (2) |
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Example: Azimuth Resolution |
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452 | (1) |
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453 | (2) |
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454 | (1) |
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Chapter 33 Imaging Methods |
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455 | (18) |
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455 | (5) |
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Swath Mapping Along-Track Resolution: The Doppler Method |
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459 | (1) |
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460 | (1) |
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461 | (3) |
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Cross-Range Resolution of ISAR Images |
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463 | (1) |
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464 | (4) |
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466 | (2) |
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468 | (1) |
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469 | (1) |
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470 | (3) |
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Some Relationships to Keep in Mind |
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471 | (1) |
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471 | (2) |
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Chapter 34 SAR Image Formation and Processing |
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473 | (22) |
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473 | (5) |
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Signal Processing for Unfocused Array |
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476 | (2) |
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478 | (3) |
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481 | (7) |
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Why the Element-to-Element Phase Shift is Double in a Synthetic Array |
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482 | (6) |
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34.4 Motion Compensation and Autofocus |
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488 | (2) |
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34.5 SAR Image Interpretation |
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490 | (3) |
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493 | (2) |
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493 | (2) |
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Chapter 35 SAR System Design |
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495 | (14) |
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35.1 SAR Radar-Range Equation |
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495 | (3) |
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498 | (3) |
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Sample Computation of PRFmax |
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499 | (2) |
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35.3 Bandwidth and Cross-Track Resolution |
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501 | (1) |
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35.4 Beamwidth and Along-Track Resolution |
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502 | (1) |
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35.5 Minimizing Sidelobes |
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502 | (1) |
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503 | (3) |
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506 | (3) |
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506 | (3) |
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PART VIII Radar and Electronic Warfare |
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Chapter 36 Electronic Warfare Terms and Concepts |
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509 | (12) |
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509 | (1) |
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509 | (1) |
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36.3 Electronic Warfare Support |
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510 | (4) |
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514 | (3) |
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36.5 Electronic Protection |
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517 | (1) |
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518 | (1) |
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518 | (3) |
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519 | (2) |
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Chapter 37 Electronic Warfare Support |
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521 | (20) |
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521 | (3) |
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524 | (3) |
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37.3 Receiver System Sensitivity and Dynamic Range |
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527 | (2) |
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37.4 One-Way Radio Propagation |
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529 | (1) |
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37.5 Passive Emitter Location |
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530 | (7) |
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537 | (1) |
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37.7 Radar Warning Receivers |
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537 | (2) |
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539 | (2) |
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540 | (1) |
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Chapter 38 Electronic Attack |
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541 | (22) |
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541 | (4) |
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Power of Noise Jamming on the Output of a Victim Radar's Receiver |
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544 | (1) |
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545 | (5) |
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|
550 | (1) |
|
38.3 Deceptive Jamming Techniques Effective against Monopulse Radars |
|
|
550 | (4) |
|
|
553 | (1) |
|
|
554 | (3) |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
38.7 Anti-Radiation Missiles |
|
|
559 | (1) |
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|
560 | (1) |
|
38.9 High-Power Microwave |
|
|
560 | (1) |
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|
560 | (3) |
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|
561 | (2) |
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Chapter 39 Electronic Protection |
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|
563 | (12) |
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|
563 | (1) |
|
|
564 | (1) |
|
39.3 The Coherent Sidelobe Canceler |
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
How Sidelobe Jamming Is Canceled |
|
|
566 | (1) |
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|
566 | (1) |
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|
566 | (1) |
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|
567 | (1) |
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|
567 | (1) |
|
Countering Range-Gate Stealers |
|
|
568 | (1) |
|
|
568 | (1) |
|
How Ground-Based Radars Counter Jamming |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
39.9 Leading Edge Tracking |
|
|
569 | (1) |
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|
569 | (1) |
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570 | (1) |
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|
570 | (1) |
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|
571 | (1) |
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|
571 | (1) |
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|
571 | (1) |
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|
571 | (1) |
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|
572 | (1) |
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|
572 | (3) |
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|
573 | (2) |
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|
575 | (6) |
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|
575 | (1) |
|
40.2 Active and Passive Decoys |
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|
576 | (1) |
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|
577 | (2) |
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|
579 | (1) |
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|
579 | (2) |
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|
579 | (2) |
|
Chapter 41 Low Probability of Intercept (LPI) |
|
|
581 | (16) |
|
41.1 Operational Strategies |
|
|
582 | (1) |
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|
582 | (2) |
|
41.3 Special LPI-Enhancing Design Features |
|
|
584 | (7) |
|
Power Management Problem 1 |
|
|
586 | (1) |
|
Power Management Problem 2 |
|
|
586 | (3) |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
Pseudo-Random Pulse Compression Codes |
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
41.4 Further Processing of Intercepted Signals by the ES Receiver |
|
|
591 | (1) |
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|
592 | (1) |
|
41.6 Possible Future Trends in LPI Design |
|
|
592 | (1) |
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|
592 | (5) |
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|
593 | (4) |
|
PART IX Special Topics and Advanced Concepts |
|
|
|
Chapter 42 Antenna Radar Cross Section Reduction |
|
|
597 | (10) |
|
42.1 Sources of Reflections from a Planar Array |
|
|
597 | (1) |
|
42.2 Reducing and Controlling Antenna RCS |
|
|
598 | (2) |
|
42.3 Avoiding Bragg Lobes |
|
|
600 | (2) |
|
Conditions Under Which a Bragg Lobe Will Be Produced |
|
|
600 | (2) |
|
Frequency Selective Surfaces |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
42.4 Application of Radar Signature Reduction Techniques in Operational Active Electronically Scanned Arrays |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
42.5 Cloaking and Stealthing Using Metamaterials |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
42.6 Validating an Antenna's Predicted RCS |
|
|
604 | (1) |
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|
604 | (3) |
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|
606 | (1) |
|
Chapter 43 Advanced Processor Architectures |
|
|
607 | (22) |
|
43.1 Basic Processing Building Blocks |
|
|
608 | (4) |
|
Moore's Law and Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductors |
|
|
611 | (1) |
|
43.2 Low-Level Processing Architectures |
|
|
612 | (4) |
|
Measures of Processor Performance |
|
|
613 | (3) |
|
43.3 Meeting Real-Time Data Density Requirements |
|
|
616 | (4) |
|
43.4 Modular Design and Fault Tolerance |
|
|
620 | (3) |
|
43.5 Future Challenges in Processing |
|
|
623 | (2) |
|
43.6 Advanced Developments |
|
|
625 | (1) |
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|
626 | (3) |
|
|
627 | (2) |
|
Chapter 44 Bistatic Radar |
|
|
629 | (10) |
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
|
630 | (1) |
|
44.2 Properties of Bistatic Radar |
|
|
630 | (3) |
|
44.3 Examples of Systems and Results |
|
|
633 | (2) |
|
Bistatic Synthetic Aperture Radar for Ground Attack |
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
44.4 Passive Bistatic Radar |
|
|
635 | (2) |
|
|
637 | (2) |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
Chapter 45 Distributed Radar and MIMO Radar |
|
|
639 | (16) |
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
45.2 Properties of Distributed Radar |
|
|
640 | (2) |
|
45.3 Categorization of Distributed Radar Systems |
|
|
642 | (4) |
|
45.4 The Distributed Radar Equation |
|
|
646 | (3) |
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|
649 | (2) |
|
|
651 | (1) |
|
|
652 | (3) |
|
|
653 | (2) |
|
Chapter 46 Radar Waveforms: Advanced Concepts |
|
|
655 | (12) |
|
46.1 Practical Considerations |
|
|
655 | (3) |
|
|
658 | (3) |
|
46.3 Nonlinear FM Waveforms |
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
|
662 | (3) |
|
|
665 | (2) |
|
|
665 | (2) |
|
Chapter 47 Target Classification |
|
|
667 | (16) |
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
|
668 | (1) |
|
47.2 Classification Terminology |
|
|
668 | (1) |
|
47.3 Target Phenomenology |
|
|
669 | (3) |
|
|
670 | (2) |
|
47.4 The Target Classification Processing Chain |
|
|
672 | (4) |
|
Classification Techniques |
|
|
673 | (3) |
|
47.5 Databases and Target Modeling |
|
|
676 | (4) |
|
Performance Assessment: The Confusion Matrix |
|
|
678 | (2) |
|
|
680 | (3) |
|
|
680 | (3) |
|
Chapter 48 Emerging Radar Trends |
|
|
683 | (16) |
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
|
683 | (3) |
|
48.3 Radar Resource Management |
|
|
686 | (3) |
|
Modes in a Multi-function Radar System |
|
|
686 | (3) |
|
48.4 Echolocation in Nature |
|
|
689 | (2) |
|
48.5 Fully Adaptive Radar |
|
|
691 | (2) |
|
48.6 Cognitive Radar Sensing |
|
|
693 | (2) |
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
|
695 | (4) |
|
|
696 | (3) |
|
PART X Representative Radar Systems |
|
|
|
Chapter 49 Airborne Early Warning and Control |
|
|
699 | (4) |
|
|
700 | (3) |
|
Chapter 50 Reconnaissance & Surveillance |
|
|
703 | (4) |
|
|
703 | (1) |
|
|
704 | (3) |
|
Chapter 51 Space Based Radar Systems |
|
|
707 | (6) |
|
|
707 | (1) |
|
|
708 | (2) |
|
|
710 | (3) |
|
Chapter 52 Fighter & Attack |
|
|
713 | (6) |
|
|
713 | (1) |
|
|
714 | (1) |
|
|
715 | (1) |
|
|
716 | (1) |
|
52.5 AH-64D Apache Helicopter (Longbow Radar) |
|
|
716 | (3) |
Test Your Understanding: Numerical Answers |
|
719 | (4) |
Index |
|
723 | |