I. BASIC AND CONCEPTUAL ISSUES |
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3 | (92) |
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Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Domain of Test Anxiety |
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3 | (26) |
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3 | (1) |
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The Pervasiveness and Prevalence of Test Anxiety in Modern Society |
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3 | (4) |
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The Widespread Interest in Test Anxiety |
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3 | (3) |
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Prevalence of Test Anxiety |
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6 | (1) |
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Brief Historical Overview of Test Anxiety Research |
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7 | (6) |
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Early Studies of Examination Stress and Anxiety: 1900-1950 |
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7 | (1) |
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Initiation of Programmatic Research on the Test Anxiety Construct: 1950s |
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8 | (1) |
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Conceptual Distinctions and Advances: 1960s |
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9 | (1) |
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Advances in Model Construction, Research, and Applications: 1970s |
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10 | (1) |
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Research Proliferation, Dissemination, and Integration: 1980s |
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11 | (2) |
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Recent Advances in Research and Assessment Methodology: 1990-Present |
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13 | (1) |
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Stress, Anxiety, and Test Anxiety: Conceptualizations and Important Distinctions |
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13 | (12) |
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The Domain of Stress and Anxiety Research |
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13 | (4) |
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Definition of the Test Anxiety Construct |
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17 | (2) |
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Key Elements in the Test Anxiety Process: A Transactional Perspective |
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19 | (6) |
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25 | (4) |
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Chapter 2 The Nature and Phenomenology of Test Anxiety |
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29 | (32) |
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29 | (2) |
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31 | (19) |
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31 | (9) |
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40 | (8) |
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48 | (2) |
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Temporal Phases of Test Anxiety |
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50 | (2) |
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Debunking the Uniformity Myth: Different Types of Test-Anxious Students |
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52 | (4) |
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Examinees with Deficient Study and Test-Taking Skills |
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52 | (1) |
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Examinees Experiencing Anxiety Blockage and Retrieval Problems |
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52 | (1) |
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Failure-Accepting Examinees |
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53 | (1) |
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Failure-Avoiding Examinees |
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53 | (1) |
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54 | (1) |
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Perfectionistic Overstrivers |
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55 | (1) |
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Related Forms of Social Evaluation Anxiety |
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56 | (2) |
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58 | (3) |
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Chapter 3 Models and Theoretical Perspectives |
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61 | (34) |
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61 | (1) |
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62 | (3) |
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Basic Concepts and Principles |
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62 | (1) |
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63 | (1) |
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63 | (2) |
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65 | (1) |
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65 | (11) |
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Cognitive-Attentional (Interference) Model |
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65 | (4) |
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69 | (7) |
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Contemporary Cognitive-Motivational Models |
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76 | (7) |
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76 | (5) |
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81 | (2) |
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83 | (5) |
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Spielberger's State-Trait Model |
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83 | (1) |
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Transactional Process Model |
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84 | (4) |
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88 | (7) |
II. METHODOLOGY: RESEARCH AND ASSESSMENT METHODS |
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95 | (50) |
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Chapter 4 Current and Recurrent Issues in Conducting Experimental Test Anxiety Research |
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95 | (22) |
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95 | (1) |
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96 | (2) |
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98 | (6) |
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98 | (3) |
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101 | (3) |
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104 | (2) |
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104 | (1) |
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105 | (1) |
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106 | (7) |
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107 | (1) |
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108 | (2) |
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110 | (1) |
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111 | (2) |
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113 | (1) |
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113 | (4) |
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Chapter 5 Developing Self-Report Test Anxiety Instruments |
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117 | (28) |
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117 | (1) |
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What to Measure: Defining the Test Anxiety Domain |
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118 | (2) |
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Facet-Analytic Approach to Domain Definition |
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119 | (1) |
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120 | (4) |
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121 | (1) |
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Determining Dimensionality and Broad versus Narrow Mapping of the Domain |
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122 | (1) |
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A Facet Theory Approach to Domain Sampling |
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122 | (2) |
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124 | (1) |
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Guidelines for Writing Items |
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124 | (1) |
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Selecting and Piloting Items |
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125 | (1) |
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125 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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Creating Scales from Items |
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126 | (3) |
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126 | (3) |
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Sampling and Establishing Scale Norms |
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129 | (1) |
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129 | (6) |
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130 | (4) |
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Threats to Validity in Contemporary Measures |
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134 | (1) |
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Establishing Scale Reliability |
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135 | (1) |
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135 | (1) |
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136 | (1) |
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136 | (2) |
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Normative Interpretation Strategy |
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137 | (1) |
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Interpretation in Terms of Reference Factors |
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137 | (1) |
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Assessment within Context |
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138 | (1) |
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Cross-Cultural Adaptations of Test Anxiety Scales |
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138 | (2) |
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Limitations of Current Scales and Needed Areas of Improvement |
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140 | (2) |
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142 | (3) |
III. ORIGINS, SOURCES, AND DETERMINANTS OF TEST ANXIETY |
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145 | (62) |
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Chapter 6 The Origins and Development of Test Anxiety |
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145 | (26) |
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145 | (1) |
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146 | (1) |
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Family Environment and Primary Socialization |
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147 | (10) |
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Models of Test Anxiety Development |
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148 | (7) |
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Empirical Evidence in Support of Development Models of Test Anxiety |
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155 | (2) |
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Implications for Test Anxiety Reduction |
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157 | (1) |
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Social Learning and Conditioning |
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157 | (4) |
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Observation and Modeling of Test-Anxious Behavior |
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158 | (1) |
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Conditioning of Test-Anxious Behaviors |
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159 | (2) |
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161 | (5) |
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161 | (1) |
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Evaluative Orientation and Practice |
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162 | (1) |
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163 | (1) |
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163 | (2) |
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Teacher Attributes and Classroom Behaviors |
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165 | (1) |
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Educational Solutions to Test Anxiety |
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166 | (1) |
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History of Failure Experiences in Evaluative Contexts |
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166 | (2) |
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168 | (3) |
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Chapter 7 Situational Determinants of Anxiety in Evaluative Situations |
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171 | (12) |
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171 | (1) |
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172 | (4) |
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Complexity of Cognitive Task |
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172 | (2) |
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174 | (1) |
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175 | (1) |
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Providing Choice among Items |
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175 | (1) |
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176 | (6) |
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Test Environment and Atmosphere |
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176 | (2) |
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Feedback and Success/Failure Experiences |
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178 | (2) |
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180 | (1) |
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Modes of Test Administration |
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181 | (1) |
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182 | (1) |
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Chapter 8 Subjective Determinants of Test Anxiety |
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183 | (24) |
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183 | (1) |
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Cognitive Processes and Structures |
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184 | (8) |
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184 | (3) |
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Evaluative Threat Structures and Schemata |
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187 | (3) |
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Irrational Thought Patterns |
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190 | (2) |
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192 | (3) |
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192 | (1) |
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Self-Consciousness and Self-Focus |
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193 | (2) |
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195 | (7) |
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Task Valence and Expectancy Beliefs |
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195 | (3) |
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198 | (4) |
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202 | (5) |
IV. CONSEQUENCES OF TEST ANXIETY FOR COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE |
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207 | (54) |
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Chapter 9 Test Anxiety and Cognitive Performance |
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207 | (30) |
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207 | (1) |
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Basic Concepts and Distinctions |
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207 | (8) |
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Facilitating versus Debilitating Effects of Anxiety |
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208 | (1) |
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Performance Efficiency versus Effectiveness |
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209 | (1) |
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Linear versus Curvilinear Anxiety-Performance Relationship |
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210 | (1) |
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Moderating versus Mediating Effects in the Anxiety-Performance Relationship |
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211 | (3) |
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State versus Trait Anxiety Effects |
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214 | (1) |
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Empirical Evidence for the Test Anxiety-Performance Relationship |
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215 | (5) |
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216 | (2) |
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Differential Effects of Worry and Emotionality |
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218 | (1) |
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219 | (1) |
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220 | (14) |
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221 | (4) |
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225 | (8) |
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233 | (1) |
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234 | (3) |
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Chapter 10 Test Anxiety and Information Processing |
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237 | (24) |
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237 | (1) |
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Causal Models and Mechanisms |
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238 | (3) |
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Cognitive-Attentional Interference |
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238 | (1) |
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Limited Cognitive Capacity |
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239 | (1) |
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Reduced Processing Efficiency |
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240 | (1) |
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Anxiety Effects on Various Stages of Information Processing |
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241 | (15) |
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Information Encoding and Acquisition |
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241 | (5) |
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Information Storage and Processing |
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246 | (9) |
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Information Retrieval and Output |
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255 | (1) |
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256 | (5) |
V. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES |
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261 | (44) |
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Chapter 11 Individual and Group Differences in Test Anxiety |
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261 | (22) |
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261 | (1) |
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261 | (8) |
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Magnitude of Gender Group Differences |
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262 | (5) |
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Explanations for the Observed Group Differences |
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267 | (1) |
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Gender Differences in the Latent Structure of Test Anxiety |
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268 | (1) |
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269 | (2) |
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Developmental Track of Test Anxiety |
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269 | (1) |
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Explanations of Age Increases in Test Anxiety |
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270 | (1) |
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Sociocultural Group Differences |
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271 | (3) |
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Socioeconomic Group Differences |
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271 | (1) |
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272 | (2) |
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Cross-National Differences |
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274 | (6) |
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Cultural Factors Potentially Influencing Test Anxiety |
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275 | (1) |
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Cultural Values and Orientations |
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275 | (3) |
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Socialization Practices and Parental Values and Pressures |
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278 | (1) |
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Perceived Valence of Exam Success and High-Stake Testing Environments |
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279 | (1) |
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Problems and Shortcomings in Cross-Cultural Test Anxiety Research |
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280 | (1) |
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280 | (3) |
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Chapter 12 Personal Correlates of Test Anxiety |
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283 | (22) |
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283 | (1) |
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283 | (10) |
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283 | (4) |
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Perceived Control and Self-Efficacy |
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287 | (1) |
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288 | (1) |
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289 | (1) |
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290 | (1) |
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291 | (1) |
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Time Orientation and Perception |
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292 | (1) |
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Affective Personality Factors |
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293 | (5) |
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293 | (1) |
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294 | (1) |
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295 | (1) |
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Self-Concept and Self-Regard |
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296 | (1) |
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297 | (1) |
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298 | (1) |
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Intelligence and Scholastic Ability |
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299 | (3) |
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302 | (3) |
VI. COPING, INTERVENTIONS, AND CLINICAL PARAMETERS |
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305 | (88) |
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Chapter 13 Coping with Test Situations: Resources, Strategies, and Adaptational Outcomes |
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305 | (28) |
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305 | (1) |
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306 | (4) |
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Coping Strategies versus Resources |
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308 | (1) |
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Coping Styles versus Coping Responses |
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309 | (1) |
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How Do Students Cope with Examinations? |
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310 | (8) |
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Stages of a Stressful Evaluative Encounter |
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310 | (1) |
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Appraisals and Emotions in an Evaluative Encounter |
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311 | (2) |
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Personal Variables and Coping |
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313 | (1) |
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Specific Ways of Coping with Exams |
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314 | (1) |
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Dimensions of Test Coping |
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315 | (3) |
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Coping, Anxiety, and Test Performance |
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318 | (1) |
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318 | (1) |
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Coping and Examinations Performance |
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318 | (1) |
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Coping and Adaptational Outcomes |
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319 | (11) |
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Major Considerations in Assessing Coping Effectiveness |
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321 | (2) |
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Methodological Problems and Limitations |
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323 | (3) |
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Some Tentative Generalizations about Coping and Coping Effectiveness |
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326 | (4) |
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330 | (3) |
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Chapter 14 Optimizing Procedures |
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333 | (14) |
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333 | (1) |
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Modifying Test Item Difficulty and Order |
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334 | (1) |
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Providing and Opportunity to Comment on Test Items |
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335 | (1) |
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Interjecting Humor into the Test Situation |
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336 | (1) |
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Modifications of Test Atmosphere and Environment |
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337 | (1) |
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Providing Soothing Background Music |
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338 | (1) |
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Optimizing Test Administration Procedures, Modes, and Formats |
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338 | (1) |
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339 | (1) |
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Providing Examiner Support and Reassurance |
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340 | (1) |
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Providing External Aids and Supports |
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341 | (1) |
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Structuring of the Learning and Test Environment |
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341 | (2) |
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343 | (4) |
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Chapter 15 Emotion-Focused Behavioral Intervention Techniques |
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347 | (20) |
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347 | (2) |
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Emotion-Focused Behavioral Techniques |
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349 | (18) |
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350 | (1) |
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Biofeedback Training (BT) |
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351 | (1) |
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352 | (3) |
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Systematic Desensitization (SD) |
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355 | (5) |
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Anxiety Management Training (AMT) |
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360 | (3) |
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363 | (1) |
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364 | (3) |
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Chapter 16 Cognitive-Focused, Cognitive-Behavioral, and Cognitive-Skills Training Intervention Techniques |
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367 | (26) |
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367 | (1) |
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368 | (4) |
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Cognitive-Attentional Training (CAT) |
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368 | (1) |
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Cognitive Restructuring Therapy (CRT) |
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369 | (3) |
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Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches |
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372 | (9) |
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Cognitive-Behavioral Modification (CBM) |
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373 | (5) |
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Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) |
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378 | (1) |
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Zeidner et al. Exemplary SIT Program |
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378 | (3) |
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Cognitive-Skill Deficit Approach: Study-Skills Training (SST) |
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381 | (3) |
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Specific Therapeutic Techniques |
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381 | (2) |
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383 | (1) |
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Evaluation of Cognitive Treatments |
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384 | (1) |
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Basic Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Test Anxiety Intervention Research |
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384 | (6) |
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Major Considerations in Therapeutic Intervention |
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384 | (3) |
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Methodological Problems and Limitations |
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387 | (3) |
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390 | (3) |
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393 | (6) |
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393 | (1) |
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Directions for Future Research |
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394 | (1) |
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Refining Conceptual Models |
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394 | (1) |
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Developing Useful Taxonomies |
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394 | (1) |
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Furthering Our Understanding of the Test Anxiety Experience and Its Long-Term Outcomes |
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394 | (1) |
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Uncovering the Developmental Origins of Test Anxiety |
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395 | (1) |
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Assessing the Effects of School Environment on Test Anxiety |
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395 | (1) |
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Determining the Prevalence of Test Anxiety and Mapping Out Individual Differences in the Test Anxiety Experience |
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396 | (1) |
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Modeling the Test Anxiety-Performance Relationship |
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396 | (1) |
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Determining the Relationship between Test Anxiety, Coping, and Adaptive Outcomes |
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397 | (1) |
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Improving Test Anxiety Interventions Research |
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397 | (1) |
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Improving Research Designs and Analyses |
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397 | (2) |
References |
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399 | (30) |
Index |
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429 | |