| Preface |
|
v | |
| Part I. Observations Reveal Gravity |
|
|
|
|
3 | (19) |
|
|
|
3 | (3) |
|
1.2 Interpretations of the Observations |
|
|
6 | (3) |
|
|
|
9 | (3) |
|
1.4 The Shapes of the Orbits |
|
|
12 | (3) |
|
1.5 Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion |
|
|
15 | (1) |
|
1.6 Galileo's Law of Inertia: Newton's Laws of Motion |
|
|
16 | (2) |
|
1.7 Newton's Law of Gravitation |
|
|
18 | (1) |
|
1.8 A Passing Encounter without Capture |
|
|
19 | (3) |
|
2. A Planet and a Sun: The Role of Gravity |
|
|
22 | (13) |
|
2.1 Specification of an Elliptic Orbit |
|
|
22 | (2) |
|
2.2 Equal Areas in Equal Times |
|
|
24 | (1) |
|
2.3 Consequences of an Elliptical Path: The Inverse Square Force Law |
|
|
25 | (3) |
|
2.4 The Semi-Major Axis and the Period of the Orbit: The 3rd Law |
|
|
28 | (1) |
|
2.5 Two Immediate Consequences |
|
|
29 | (1) |
|
2.6 The Energy in an Elliptic Orbit |
|
|
30 | (1) |
|
2.7 Specifying the Orbit from Observations |
|
|
31 | (1) |
|
2.8 The Different Possible Orbits |
|
|
32 | (3) |
|
3. Several Planets: The Centre of Mass |
|
|
35 | (16) |
|
|
|
35 | (3) |
|
3.2 Jupiter, Mars and the Asteroids |
|
|
38 | (1) |
|
3.3 The Centre of Mass: Two Masses |
|
|
39 | (3) |
|
|
|
42 | (3) |
|
|
|
45 | (3) |
|
|
|
48 | (3) |
|
4. The General Structure of a Planet |
|
|
51 | (14) |
|
|
|
51 | (3) |
|
4.2 Packing Atoms Together |
|
|
54 | (3) |
|
4.3 The Mass-Radius Relation |
|
|
57 | (1) |
|
4.4 Maximum Size and Mass |
|
|
58 | (1) |
|
4.5 Defining a Planetary Body |
|
|
59 | (2) |
|
|
|
61 | (2) |
|
4.7 Planets and Satellites: Planetary Bodies |
|
|
63 | (2) |
|
5. Fluid Flows and Magnetism |
|
|
65 | (20) |
|
|
|
65 | (3) |
|
5.2 The Importance of Time Scales |
|
|
68 | (1) |
|
5.3 Specifying Fluid Behaviour |
|
|
69 | (1) |
|
5.4 Isothermal Insulating Fluids |
|
|
70 | (3) |
|
5.5 Thermal Insulating Fluid Flows |
|
|
73 | (3) |
|
5.6 Natural Convection: Volcanic Activities |
|
|
76 | (1) |
|
|
|
77 | (2) |
|
5.8 Electrically Conducting Fluids |
|
|
79 | (2) |
|
5.9 Application to Planetary Magnetic Fields |
|
|
81 | (4) |
| Part II. General Features of the Solar System |
|
|
6. The Larger Members of the Solar System |
|
|
85 | (13) |
|
|
|
85 | (1) |
|
|
|
85 | (5) |
|
|
|
90 | (3) |
|
|
|
93 | (2) |
|
|
|
95 | (1) |
|
6.6 Magnetism and Rotation |
|
|
96 | (2) |
|
7. Smaller Members: Asteroids, Comets and Meteorites |
|
|
98 | (12) |
|
|
|
98 | (5) |
|
7.2 Comets and Meteor Showers |
|
|
103 | (3) |
|
|
|
106 | (1) |
|
7.4 The Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt |
|
|
106 | (1) |
|
|
|
107 | (3) |
|
8. The Material of the Solar System |
|
|
110 | (12) |
|
8.1 The Solar/Cosmic Abundance of the Elements |
|
|
110 | (1) |
|
8.2 The Formation of Molecules |
|
|
111 | (2) |
|
8.3 The Compositions of Terrestrial Materials |
|
|
113 | (3) |
|
|
|
116 | (2) |
|
|
|
118 | (1) |
|
8.6 The Material of the Solar System |
|
|
118 | (2) |
|
|
|
120 | (2) |
|
9. Finding the Ages of Rocks: Geochronology |
|
|
122 | (13) |
|
9.1 Atoms and Radioactive Decay |
|
|
122 | (1) |
|
9.1.1 Some comments on atomic structure |
|
|
122 | (4) |
|
9.1.2 Atomic transformations: Isotopes |
|
|
123 | (1) |
|
|
|
124 | (1) |
|
9.1.4 Single radioactive decay |
|
|
125 | (1) |
|
9.1.5 A radioactive chain |
|
|
126 | (1) |
|
|
|
126 | (2) |
|
9.3 An Elementary Method for Dating Rocks |
|
|
128 | (1) |
|
9.4 The Closure Temperature |
|
|
129 | (1) |
|
9.5 Selecting a Particular Decay Mode |
|
|
129 | (3) |
|
9.5.1 The rubidium–strontium method |
|
|
129 | (1) |
|
9.5.2 Other decay schemes |
|
|
130 | (2) |
|
9.6 Dating Using Nuclear Reactors |
|
|
132 | (3) |
|
10. Surfaces and Interiors |
|
|
135 | (18) |
|
|
|
135 | (4) |
|
10.1.1 The shape of a planet |
|
|
136 | (2) |
|
|
|
138 | (1) |
|
|
|
139 | (7) |
|
10.2.1 Density with depth |
|
|
139 | (2) |
|
10.2.2 The isothermal bulk modulus: Seismology |
|
|
141 | (2) |
|
|
|
143 | (1) |
|
10.2.4 The quality factor, Q |
|
|
144 | (1) |
|
10.2.5 Seismic tomography |
|
|
145 | (1) |
|
|
|
145 | (1) |
|
10.3 The Near-Surface Interior Region |
|
|
146 | (1) |
|
|
|
146 | (1) |
|
10.4 Free Body Oscillations |
|
|
147 | (2) |
|
10.5 Empirical Equations of State |
|
|
149 | (1) |
|
|
|
150 | (3) |
|
|
|
153 | (20) |
|
|
|
154 | (2) |
|
11.2 The Interior Seismic Structure |
|
|
156 | (3) |
|
11.2.1 Seismic tomography |
|
|
158 | (1) |
|
|
|
159 | (4) |
|
|
|
160 | (1) |
|
11.3.2 Mid-ocean ridges and ocean trenches |
|
|
160 | (3) |
|
11.4 Plates and Plate Tectonics |
|
|
163 | (1) |
|
11.5 The Inner and Outer Cores |
|
|
164 | (1) |
|
|
|
165 | (3) |
|
11.7 Comments on the Atmosphere |
|
|
168 | (5) |
|
12. 'Flu' Planets: Mercury and Mars |
|
|
173 | (19) |
|
12.1 Rotation and Temperature |
|
|
173 | (1) |
|
|
|
174 | (4) |
|
12.3 Internal Structure of Mercury |
|
|
178 | (1) |
|
12.4 The Mercury Atmosphere |
|
|
178 | (3) |
|
12.5 The General Topology of Mars |
|
|
181 | (1) |
|
|
|
182 | (3) |
|
|
|
185 | (1) |
|
12.8 The Internal Structure of Mars |
|
|
186 | (2) |
|
12.9 The Atmosphere of Mars |
|
|
188 | (1) |
|
12.10 A Tentative History of Mars |
|
|
189 | (3) |
|
|
|
192 | (12) |
|
13.1 First Views of the Surface |
|
|
193 | (2) |
|
|
|
195 | (4) |
|
|
|
199 | (1) |
|
|
|
200 | (4) |
|
|
|
200 | (1) |
|
13.4.2 Temperature profile |
|
|
200 | (1) |
|
|
|
201 | (3) |
|
14. The Planets: Jupiter and Saturn |
|
|
204 | (15) |
|
|
|
206 | (3) |
|
|
|
209 | (1) |
|
14.3 Visible Surface Compositions |
|
|
210 | (1) |
|
14.4 General Comments on Internal Conditions |
|
|
211 | (2) |
|
14.5 Detailed Model Interiors |
|
|
213 | (1) |
|
14.5.1 Jupiter model interior |
|
|
213 | (1) |
|
14.5.2 Saturn model interior |
|
|
214 | (1) |
|
14.6 Comment on Interior Heat Flow |
|
|
214 | (1) |
|
14.7 Intrinsic Magnetic Fields |
|
|
215 | (4) |
|
15. The Planets: Uranus and Neptune |
|
|
219 | (9) |
|
|
|
221 | (1) |
|
|
|
222 | (2) |
|
15.3 Visible Surface Compositions |
|
|
224 | (1) |
|
15.4 Internal Structure and Conditions |
|
|
224 | (1) |
|
15.5 Comment on Interior Heat Flow |
|
|
225 | (1) |
|
|
|
226 | (2) |
|
16. Satellites of the Solar System |
|
|
228 | (29) |
|
|
|
228 | (8) |
|
16.1.1 Some historical background |
|
|
228 | (2) |
|
|
|
230 | (1) |
|
16.1.3 Surface composition: The lava flows |
|
|
231 | (1) |
|
16.1.4 Surface composition: The highland rocks |
|
|
232 | (1) |
|
16.1.5 Surface composition: The lunar "soil" |
|
|
233 | (1) |
|
|
|
233 | (3) |
|
|
|
236 | (1) |
|
16.1.8 Transient lunar events |
|
|
236 | (1) |
|
16.2 The Satellites of Mars |
|
|
236 | (2) |
|
16.3 The Larger Satellites |
|
|
238 | (13) |
|
|
|
240 | (3) |
|
|
|
243 | (2) |
|
16.3.3 Ganymede and Callisto |
|
|
245 | (2) |
|
|
|
247 | (4) |
|
|
|
251 | (1) |
|
16.4 The Smaller Satellites |
|
|
251 | (1) |
|
16.5 Internal Conditions: Internal Differentiation |
|
|
251 | (6) |
| Part III. Magnetism within the Solar System |
|
|
17. Intrinsic Magnetism of the Earth |
|
|
257 | (16) |
|
|
|
257 | (2) |
|
17.2 The Magnetic Elements |
|
|
259 | (2) |
|
17.3 Separation into a Dipole and Non-dipole Fields |
|
|
261 | (4) |
|
17.4 Short Time Variations: The Secular Variation |
|
|
265 | (1) |
|
17.5 Long Time Variations: Magnetic Field Reversals |
|
|
265 | (3) |
|
17.6 The Geomagnetic Poles have Moved: Continental Drift |
|
|
268 | (3) |
|
17.7 Creation of Ocean Floor |
|
|
271 | (2) |
|
18. The Earth's External Magnetism |
|
|
273 | (11) |
|
18.1 The Effects of the Solar Emissions |
|
|
273 | (4) |
|
18.2 The Interplanetary Magnetic Field |
|
|
277 | (1) |
|
|
|
278 | (1) |
|
18.4 Magnetic Storms and Transient Disturbances |
|
|
279 | (1) |
|
18.5 The Special Effect of the Moon |
|
|
280 | (1) |
|
18.6 van Allen Radiation Belts |
|
|
281 | (3) |
|
19. The Magnetism of the Other Planets |
|
|
284 | (15) |
|
19.1 The Intrinsic Magnetic Fields |
|
|
284 | (2) |
|
|
|
286 | (6) |
|
19.3 Other Examples for Planetary Bodies |
|
|
292 | (2) |
|
19.4 Mot ion through the Interstellar Medium |
|
|
294 | (1) |
|
19.5 Companions to Other Stars |
|
|
294 | (5) |
| Part IV. Stars as a Continuing Source of Energy |
|
|
|
|
299 | (13) |
|
20.1 Observations and Measurements |
|
|
299 | (2) |
|
|
|
301 | (1) |
|
20.3 The Life Expectancy of a Star |
|
|
302 | (2) |
|
20.4 The Hertztsprung-Russell Diagram |
|
|
304 | (8) |
|
21. The Constitution of Stars |
|
|
312 | (12) |
|
21.1 A Family of Similar Stars: The Assumptions |
|
|
312 | (2) |
|
21.2 Specifying the Family of Stars |
|
|
314 | (1) |
|
21.3 Some Immediate Conclusions |
|
|
315 | (1) |
|
21.4 The Luminosity: The Mass-Radius Relation |
|
|
316 | (1) |
|
21.5 The Mass and Luminosity Relation |
|
|
317 | (1) |
|
21.6 The Central Temperature |
|
|
317 | (1) |
|
21.7 The Life Expectancy: Dependence on the Mass |
|
|
318 | (1) |
|
21.8 The State of Dense Matter |
|
|
318 | (6) |
|
21.8.1 Non-relativistic case |
|
|
320 | (1) |
|
|
|
321 | (3) |
|
22. Stellar Energy Source |
|
|
324 | (11) |
|
|
|
324 | (1) |
|
22.2 The Binding Energy: Fusion and Fission |
|
|
325 | (2) |
|
|
|
327 | (1) |
|
22.4 The Hydrogen-Helium Process |
|
|
328 | (2) |
|
22.4.1 The proton-proton chain |
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
22.4.2 The carbon-nitrogen cycle |
|
|
329 | (1) |
|
22.5 Reactions at Higher Temperatures |
|
|
330 | (1) |
|
22.6 The Escape of Radiation from a Star |
|
|
331 | (1) |
|
22.7 Synthesizing the Heavier Elements: r- and s- processes |
|
|
332 | (3) |
|
23. The Sun and Its Interior |
|
|
335 | (13) |
|
|
|
336 | (3) |
|
23.2 The Surface: The Photosphere |
|
|
339 | (6) |
|
|
|
345 | (3) |
|
24. Solar Emissions of Particles: The Solar Wind |
|
|
348 | (13) |
|
24.1 Above the Surface: The Chromosphere and Corona |
|
|
349 | (4) |
|
|
|
353 | (2) |
|
|
|
355 | (2) |
|
24.4 Present and Future Variability |
|
|
357 | (4) |
| Part V. Exoplanets |
|
|
25. A Planetary System from Afar: The Solar System |
|
|
361 | (10) |
|
25.1 Observing the Motion of the Central Star |
|
|
361 | (5) |
|
25.2 The Case of a Transit |
|
|
366 | (2) |
|
|
|
368 | (1) |
|
25.4 Nulling Interferometry |
|
|
368 | (1) |
|
|
|
369 | (1) |
|
25.6 Direct Imaging - White Dwarf Stars |
|
|
369 | (1) |
|
|
|
369 | (2) |
|
26. Observed Exo-Planet Systems |
|
|
371 | (10) |
|
|
|
371 | (1) |
|
26.2 A Companion to a Solar-Type Star |
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
26.4 A Survey of the Measurements |
|
|
374 | (3) |
|
26.5 Multiple Companion Systems |
|
|
377 | (1) |
|
26.6 Small Eccentricities |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
26.7 Systems with a Large Semi-Major Axis |
|
|
378 | (2) |
|
26.8 Small Eccentricity and Larger Semi-major Axis |
|
|
380 | (1) |
|
27. Assessing the Observational Data |
|
|
381 | (8) |
|
27.1 Firm Characteristics |
|
|
381 | (1) |
|
27.2 More Massive Companions |
|
|
382 | (1) |
|
27.3 A Special Case: Transit Systems |
|
|
383 | (1) |
|
27.4 Small Semi-Major Axes: Role of Eccentricity |
|
|
384 | (1) |
|
|
|
385 | (4) |
| Part VI. Exo-Biology |
|
|
|
|
389 | (13) |
|
|
|
389 | (2) |
|
28.2 The Characteristics of Early Life |
|
|
391 | (2) |
|
28.3 Oxygen in the Atmosphere |
|
|
393 | (1) |
|
28.4 The Evolutionary Sequence |
|
|
394 | (2) |
|
28.5 The Movement of Continents |
|
|
396 | (1) |
|
28.6 Life on the Atlantic mid-Ocean Ridge |
|
|
397 | (1) |
|
|
|
398 | (1) |
|
|
|
399 | (3) |
|
29. What Makes a Planet Habitable? |
|
|
402 | (10) |
|
29.1 An Overall Requirement |
|
|
402 | (1) |
|
29.2 Atomic Constraints: Binding Energies |
|
|
403 | (2) |
|
|
|
405 | (1) |
|
29.4 Heat from the Central Star |
|
|
405 | (1) |
|
29.5 The Role of an Atmosphere: Planetary Mass |
|
|
406 | (2) |
|
|
|
408 | (1) |
|
29.7 Surface Features: Body Size and Scaling |
|
|
409 | (3) |
|
30. An Anthropic Universe? |
|
|
412 | (13) |
|
30.1 Describing the Physical World |
|
|
412 | (2) |
|
30.2 Consequences of the Strength of the Forces of Nature |
|
|
414 | (1) |
|
|
|
415 | (3) |
|
30.4 The Size of Our Universe |
|
|
418 | (1) |
|
30.5 Model Universes: Anthropic Principles |
|
|
419 | (2) |
|
30.6 Information and the Universe |
|
|
421 | (1) |
|
30.7 Extra-terrestrial Visitations |
|
|
422 | (3) |
| Epilogue |
|
425 | (6) |
| Some Historic Events in the Space Probe Exploration of the Solar System |
|
431 | (2) |
| Some Useful References |
|
433 | (2) |
| Glossary |
|
435 | (40) |
| Problems and Solutions |
|
475 | (10) |
| Index |
|
485 | |