Western Intervention in the Middle East and North Africa: The ‘Responsibility to Protect’ in Libya, Syria and Beyond offers a groundbreaking investigation into one of the most contested questions in international relations: why states intervene to stop mass atrocities in some contexts but not in others.
Western Intervention in the Middle East and North Africa: The ‘Responsibility to Protect’ in Libya, Syria and Beyond offers a groundbreaking investigation into one of the most contested questions in international relations: why states intervene to stop mass atrocities in some contexts but not in others.
Focusing on the United States and the United Kingdom, this book examines two pivotal cases - Libya (2011) and Syria (2011–2013) - to reveal how decisions under the third pillar of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) are shaped less by universal norms than by nationally constructed identities and interests. Through detailed case studies, qualitative interviews, and extensive engagement with social constructivist theory, the book demonstrates how the U.S. and U.K. positioned themselves as ‘intervener’ in Libya but as ‘non-intervener’ in Syria, and how the Libya experience itself influenced subsequent restraint in Syria. By tracing the complex interaction of social, political, and institutional factors, it challenges the assumption that R2P operates as a purely international agenda and instead uncovers the national-level dynamics that determine whether and how military interventions occur.
Essential reading for scholars, policymakers, and practitioners in international relations, human rights, and Middle East and North African studies, this book provides critical insights into the politics of atrocity prevention and highlights the nuanced conditions required for future third pillar responses.
Arvustused
"In this profoundly important book, Josephine Jackson offers compelling and original account which breaks new ground in our understanding of the reasons why states sometimes employ military force to protect populations from atrocities and sometimes choose not to. By combining fresh theoretical thinking into national decision-making with a hitherto unseen level of empirical insight directly from key decision-makers on the international response to the crises in Libya and Syria, this volume sets a new bar in our understanding. A must read for practitioners, experts, and newcomers alike, future studies will have to take account of Jacksons immense contribution."
Alex Bellamy, The University of Queensland, Australia.
"Josephine Jackson's deeply researched and superbly argued account of why the West intervened in Libya yet not in Syria, in the face of an even more appalling humanitarian crisis, makes riveting reading. She makes a powerful case for why employing military force to protect civilians from atrocities an option rarely thought through by political leaders and their advisers is becoming more complex and difficult. We must learn the lessons captured through Jacksons brilliant insights and modify our understanding of how populations at risk of mass killing can best be helped."
Field Marshal Lord David Richards of Herstmonceux GCB CBE DSO DL, Chief of the Defence Staff, United Kingdom (2010-2013).
"In the face of genocide in Ukraine and war crimes in Gaza, never has Responsibility to Protect, the UN global political commitment to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity been more needed. Equally, never has the UN been more impotent. Dr Jacksons insights into the politics of atrocity prevention and when the international community should take appropriate collective action are masterly and should be widely read."
General Sir Richard Shirreff KCB CBE, Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (2011-2014).
"This is a deeply researched and insightful study of the complex issues which policymakers grapple with in making decisions on using military force for humanitarian purposes. It makes skilful use of case studies to highlight the risks of intervening, but also the potentially grave consequences of failing to act."
Lord Peter Ricketts GCMG, GCVO, National Security Advisor to Prime Minister David Cameron.
"Jackson takes her readers on an impeccably researched and insightful journey into the political and ethical dilemmas of military intervention for humanitarian purposes, contrasting in particular intervention in Libya with the subsequent non-intervention in Syria. The book sets out in a clear and engaging way the military, political, and diplomatic angles which make this issue so challenging for world leaders and policy makers."
Sir Mark Lyall Grant GCMG, formerly Prime Ministers National Security Advisor and Permanent Representative of the United Kingdom to the United Nations.
CONTENTS
1 Introduction
I. Introduction
The Question and the Argument
II. An Old Problem in a New Context
The R2P Norm: Establishment and Advancement
III. Analytic Framework
Constructivism: Social Realities of International Relations
Constructivism and R2P in Research
The Concept of Intervener Identity
IV. Methodology
Case Study Selection and Justification: Why Libya and Syria?
Data Generation
Successes, Challenges, and Limitations
V. Book Structure
2 Libya and Syria Background: Instability, Tensions, and Abuses
I. Introduction
II. Libya
Instability of the State
The Role of Outside Powers
Human Rights Abuses
The Arab Spring Arrives in Libya
III. Syria
Instability of the State
The Role of Outside Powers
Human Rights Abuses
The Arab Spring Arrives in Syria
IV. Conclusion
3 Libya R2P in Perception (Pre-Intervention): History, Knowledge, and
Influences
I. Introduction
II. U.S. and U.K. Actor Perceptions of R2P
The Need for R2P: Rwanda, Srebrenica, and Kosovo
The Road to R2P: Advocacy and Engagement
R2P as a Humanitarian Concept: Unfamiliarity and Unawareness
R2P Implementation: Actor Ideas About Best Practices
III. Situating R2P Strategies in Context
The U.S., the U.K., and Libya: Missing Links
The Benghazi Moment: Accelerating the Response
U.N. Security Council Membership: Gatekeepers for R2P
IV. National Interests, Responsibilities, and Limitations
No Common Cause: Widening the National Interest
The Resources Problem: Priorities and Deficiencies
The Pressure Builds: Decision Points and R2P
V. Conclusion
4 Libya R2P in Practice (Intervention): Applications, Problems, and
Adjustments
I. Introduction
II. The Early Stage: An Intervention Dilemma
From Operation Odyssey Dawn (OOD) to Operation Unified Protector (OUP): No
Simple Way
Undertaking Third Pillar Intervention: The Problem of Who
NATO Clears the Threshold: Transitioning, Shadowing, and Advancing
III. The Mid/Late Stages: Hard Realities of Intervention
NATOs First Battle: Making the System Work
Shaping R2P: Language, Meanings, and Standards
OUP Intensifies: NATOs Challenges and Problems
OUP in Paralysis: The Intentions and 'The Activities'
OUP Concludes: Shutting It Down
IV. Conclusion
5 Libya R2P in Reflection (Post-Intervention): Learning, Evaluation, and
Deliberation
I. Introduction
II. OUPs Successes and Accomplishments
III. OUPs Failings and Lessons
IV. The Post-OUP Clash of Visions
6 Syria R2P Misplaced: Wariness, Polarization, and Prohibitiveness
I. Introduction
II. Effecting Non-Intervention: Misconceptions, Overlearning, and the
Escalation Dynamic
III. Horrific Yet Insufficient: The Shabbiha, Homs, and Ghouta
IV. U.N. Security Council Dynamics: Clashes of Interests
V. Contemplating Militarized Intervention: What It Would Take
VI. Conclusion
6 Conclusion and the Way Forward
References
Appendix I: Text of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) Norm
Appendix II: Personal Interviews with the Author
Appendix III: List of Abbreviations
Index
Josephine S. Jackson is an academic-practitioner, working in both defense policy and academia. She was recently an associate lecturer in Foundation History and International Relations at the University of St Andrews in St Andrews, Scotland. She continues to be involved with the Centre for Global Law and Governance and the Institute for Middle East, Central Asia, and Caucasus Studies, both at the University of St Andrews. Her research areas include U.S. and U.K. foreign policy and national security; the Middle East and North Africa regions; international criminal law (including genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and aggression); Responsibility to Protect (R2P); international humanitarian law; and ethical governance of artificial intelligence and Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS). She is a Truman National Security Fellow and a mentor for the Carnegie Council for Ethics and International Affairs Carnegie Ethics Fellows.
