Preface |
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xiii | |
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Introduction to environmental measurements |
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1 | (30) |
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Role of measurement in environmental studies |
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1 | (4) |
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2 | (2) |
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4 | (1) |
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Pollutants: sources and measurements |
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5 | (5) |
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Classes of environmental contaminants |
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6 | (3) |
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Regulating the environment |
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9 | (1) |
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Design of environmental studies |
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10 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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Basic statistical data handling |
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11 | (6) |
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Errors in quantitative analysis |
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12 | (1) |
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Statistics of repeated measurements: precision |
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13 | (1) |
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14 | (2) |
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Confidence interval and the t-distribution |
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16 | (1) |
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17 | (5) |
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Comparison between a measured and a known value |
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17 | (1) |
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Comparison of the mean of two samples |
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18 | (1) |
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Comparison of standard deviations using the F-test |
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19 | (1) |
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20 | (1) |
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21 | (1) |
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21 | (1) |
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Standards and calibration |
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22 | (2) |
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22 | (1) |
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23 | (1) |
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Performance of analytical methods: figures of merit |
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24 | (7) |
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25 | (1) |
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25 | (1) |
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26 | (1) |
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Validation of new methods |
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27 | (1) |
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28 | (1) |
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29 | (2) |
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31 | (23) |
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31 | (7) |
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Spatial and temporal variability |
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32 | (1) |
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33 | (2) |
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35 | (3) |
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38 | (1) |
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39 | (2) |
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Samples in the laboratory |
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41 | (1) |
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Statistical aspects of sampling |
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41 | (2) |
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43 | (3) |
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44 | (1) |
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Ground water well sampling |
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45 | (1) |
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Biological tissue sampling |
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46 | (1) |
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47 | (1) |
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Sampling statified levels in containers |
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48 | (1) |
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49 | (5) |
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51 | (1) |
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Choice of proper containers |
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51 | (1) |
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Absorption of gases from the atmosphere |
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51 | (1) |
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51 | (1) |
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Sample preservation for soil, sludges, and hazardous wastes |
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52 | (1) |
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52 | (1) |
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53 | (1) |
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54 | (49) |
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Spectroscopic methods for environmental analysis |
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54 | (7) |
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Properties of electromagnetic radiation |
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55 | (1) |
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The electromagnetic spectrum |
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56 | (1) |
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57 | (4) |
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61 | (3) |
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61 | (3) |
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64 | (2) |
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64 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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66 | (5) |
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67 | (1) |
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67 | (3) |
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70 | (1) |
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Ultraviolet and visible absorption spectroscopy |
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71 | (6) |
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UV and visible instrumentation |
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73 | (2) |
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75 | (2) |
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77 | (9) |
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Scanning infrared instrumentation |
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78 | (1) |
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Fourier transform infrared spectrometry |
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79 | (7) |
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Atomic absorption spectroscopy |
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86 | (7) |
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Flame atomic absorbance spectroscopy |
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88 | (1) |
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Graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry |
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88 | (3) |
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Interference in atomic absorption |
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91 | (2) |
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Inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy |
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93 | (3) |
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Comparison of atomic spectroscopic methods |
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95 | (1) |
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96 | (5) |
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Wavelength dispersive XRF versus energy dispersive XRF |
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97 | (1) |
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97 | (4) |
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Hyphenated spectroscopic methods |
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101 | (2) |
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101 | (1) |
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101 | (2) |
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103 | (52) |
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Principles of chromatography |
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103 | (10) |
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106 | (6) |
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The general elution problem |
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112 | (1) |
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Quantitation in chromatography |
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113 | (1) |
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113 | (1) |
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The internal standard method |
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114 | (1) |
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114 | (11) |
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115 | (1) |
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116 | (9) |
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125 | (7) |
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Thermal conductivity detector (TCD) |
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125 | (1) |
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Flame ionization detector (FID) |
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126 | (1) |
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Electron capture detector (ECD) |
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127 | (1) |
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Photoionization detector (PID) |
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128 | (1) |
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Electrolytic conductivity detector (EICD) |
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129 | (1) |
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Flame photometric detector (FPD) |
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130 | (1) |
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Thermionic ionization or nitrogen-phosphorous detector (NPD) |
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131 | (1) |
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Mass selective detector (MSD) |
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132 | (1) |
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132 | (1) |
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High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) |
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132 | (4) |
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Reverse phase liquid chromatography |
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133 | (2) |
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Normal phase liquid chromatography |
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135 | (1) |
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136 | (6) |
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136 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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138 | (1) |
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138 | (4) |
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142 | (5) |
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Ultraviolet absorption detectors |
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143 | (2) |
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145 | (1) |
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Mass spectrometric detection |
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146 | (1) |
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147 | (1) |
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Supercritical fluid chromatography |
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148 | (4) |
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150 | (2) |
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Applications of chromatography in environmental analysis |
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152 | (3) |
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153 | (1) |
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153 | (2) |
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155 | (29) |
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Interpretation of spectra |
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156 | (3) |
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159 | (3) |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (2) |
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162 | (4) |
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Electron impact ionization |
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162 | (1) |
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163 | (2) |
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Atmospheric pressure ionization sources |
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165 | (1) |
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166 | (6) |
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166 | (2) |
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Magnetic sector mass analyzer |
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168 | (1) |
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The ion trap mass analyzer |
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168 | (4) |
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172 | (1) |
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Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS) |
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172 | (3) |
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Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (C/MS) |
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175 | (1) |
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Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP/MS) |
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175 | (3) |
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178 | (2) |
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Library searching techniques |
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180 | (4) |
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183 | (1) |
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183 | (1) |
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Sample preparation techniques |
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184 | (25) |
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Extraction of organic analytes from liquid samples |
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185 | (7) |
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Liquid--liquid extraction |
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185 | (4) |
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189 | (3) |
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Solid phase microextraction |
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192 | (1) |
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Extraction of organic analytes from solid samples |
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192 | (7) |
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192 | (2) |
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Accelerated solvent extraction |
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194 | (1) |
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Ultrasonic extraction of organics |
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195 | (1) |
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Supercritical fluid extraction |
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196 | (3) |
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Post-extraction procedures |
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199 | (2) |
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Concentration of sample extracts |
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199 | (1) |
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199 | (2) |
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Extraction of metals from sample matrices |
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201 | (5) |
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Acid digestion of samples for determination of metals |
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201 | (1) |
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202 | (1) |
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202 | (1) |
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202 | (1) |
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Organic extraction of metals |
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203 | (3) |
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Speciation of metals in environmental samples |
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206 | (3) |
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208 | (1) |
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208 | (1) |
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209 | (38) |
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209 | (1) |
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Determination of gaseous species |
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210 | (8) |
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211 | (2) |
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Determination of sulfur species |
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213 | (1) |
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Determination of nitrogen oxides in air |
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214 | (2) |
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Determination of ozone in air samples |
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216 | (1) |
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Determination of radon in air |
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216 | (2) |
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Determination of volatile organic compounds |
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218 | (12) |
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219 | (6) |
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225 | (3) |
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228 | (2) |
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Other methods for analysis of volatiles and gases |
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230 | (5) |
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Determination of non-methane organic carbon |
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230 | (1) |
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Annular denuder methods for air analysis |
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231 | (2) |
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Impinger methods for air sampling |
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233 | (2) |
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Determination of pollutants in particulate material |
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235 | (8) |
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Particle size fractionators |
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238 | (1) |
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238 | (2) |
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Determination of total suspended particulates in air |
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240 | (1) |
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Determination of metals in airborne particulates |
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241 | (2) |
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Determination of anions in airborne particulates |
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243 | (1) |
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Determination of organic species in particulate material |
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243 | (1) |
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Field methods for air analysis |
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243 | (1) |
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Methods for stack monitoring |
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244 | (3) |
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245 | (1) |
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245 | (2) |
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Methods for water analysis |
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247 | (32) |
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Sample collection and preservation |
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249 | (1) |
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Potentiometry for ions and gases in aqueous solution |
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250 | (5) |
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251 | (1) |
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Other specific ion electrodes |
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252 | (3) |
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255 | (9) |
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256 | (1) |
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Digestion of metal samples |
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256 | (1) |
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Preconcentrating the sample |
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257 | (1) |
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Separating `labile' metal species |
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257 | (1) |
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Atomic absorption methods |
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258 | (2) |
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Inductively coupled plasma methods |
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260 | (1) |
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Determination of metals by voltammetry |
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261 | (3) |
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Inorganic anions in water |
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264 | (1) |
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Ion chromatographic analysis for common anions |
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264 | (1) |
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Organic compounds in water |
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265 | (4) |
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Biochemical oxygen demand |
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266 | (1) |
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267 | (1) |
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268 | (1) |
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Volatile organic compounds in water |
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269 | (4) |
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Measurement of VOCs using purge and trap |
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269 | (3) |
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Head space screening for VOCs |
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272 | (1) |
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Screening for VOCs by solid phase microextration |
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273 | (1) |
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Semivolatile organics in water |
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273 | (3) |
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Extractable base/neutrals and acids |
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273 | (1) |
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274 | (2) |
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276 | (3) |
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277 | (1) |
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277 | (2) |
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Methods for analysis of solid samples |
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279 | (26) |
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280 | (3) |
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Preparation of solid samples |
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282 | (1) |
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283 | (1) |
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Analysis of metals in soil and solids |
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284 | (4) |
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286 | (1) |
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Determination of arsenic and selenium |
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286 | (1) |
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Analysis of solids with X-ray fluorescence |
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287 | (1) |
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Analysis of soil for total nitrogen |
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288 | (1) |
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Colorimetric tests for soil and sludge analysis |
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288 | (1) |
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Determination of phosphorous |
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288 | (1) |
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Determination of aluminum |
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289 | (1) |
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Measurement of total organic carbon in soil |
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289 | (1) |
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Volatile organics in soils or solids |
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290 | (2) |
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Measurement of VOCs using purge and trap |
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290 | (1) |
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291 | (1) |
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Determination of VOC using solid phase microextraction |
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291 | (1) |
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Total petroleum hydrocarbon in soil and sludge |
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292 | (1) |
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Semi-volatile organics in soil and sludge |
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293 | (6) |
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293 | (3) |
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Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in solids |
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296 | (3) |
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Leaching tests for wastes |
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299 | (2) |
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301 | (2) |
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303 | (2) |
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303 | (1) |
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303 | (2) |
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Quality assurance and quality control |
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305 | (15) |
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Determination of accuracy and precision |
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307 | (1) |
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307 | (4) |
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307 | (2) |
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309 | (1) |
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Background or control site samples |
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310 | (1) |
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Performance evaluation samples |
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311 | (1) |
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Preparation of evaluation samples |
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311 | (1) |
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Stability of evaluation samples |
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312 | (1) |
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312 | (4) |
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313 | (3) |
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Quality assurance for the example determinations |
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316 | (4) |
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Determination of VOC in air by Tenax trapping and thermal desorption |
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316 | (1) |
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Determination of haloacetic acid and trichlorophenol in water |
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317 | (1) |
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Determination of metals in dry sludge |
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318 | (1) |
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318 | (1) |
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319 | (1) |
Appendix 1: Percentiles of the t-distribution |
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320 | (1) |
Appendix 2: Critical values of the f-test at 5% level of significance |
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321 | (2) |
Index |
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323 | |