| Preface |
|
xvii | |
| List of Abbreviations |
|
xxi | |
| Nomenclature List |
|
xxv | |
| 1 Introduction |
|
1 | (14) |
|
|
|
1 | (2) |
|
1.2 Gas Markets, Gas Applications and Feedstock |
|
|
3 | (1) |
|
|
|
3 | (1) |
|
|
|
4 | (3) |
|
|
|
7 | (1) |
|
1.6 Objective of This Book |
|
|
7 | (1) |
|
|
|
7 | (6) |
|
1.7.1 Synthesis Gas Plant |
|
|
8 | (1) |
|
1.7.2 Natural Gas Treatment |
|
|
9 | (1) |
|
1.7.3 Natural Gas Treatment for LNG |
|
|
9 | (1) |
|
1.7.4 Flue Gas CO2 Capture from a CCGT Power Plant |
|
|
9 | (2) |
|
1.7.5 Flue Gas CO2 Capture from a Coal Based Power Plant |
|
|
11 | (1) |
|
1.7.6 CO2 Removal from Biogas |
|
|
11 | (1) |
|
1.7.7 CO2 Removal from Landfill Gas |
|
|
12 | (1) |
|
1.7.8 Summarising Plant Sizes Just Considered |
|
|
12 | (1) |
|
|
|
13 | (2) |
| 2 Gas Treating in General |
|
15 | (34) |
|
|
|
15 | (1) |
|
|
|
16 | (21) |
|
|
|
16 | (1) |
|
|
|
17 | (2) |
|
|
|
19 | (11) |
|
|
|
30 | (6) |
|
|
|
36 | (1) |
|
|
|
37 | (6) |
|
|
|
38 | (1) |
|
|
|
39 | (1) |
|
2.3.3 Direct Oxidation-Liquid Redox Processes |
|
|
39 | (2) |
|
|
|
41 | (2) |
|
|
|
43 | (1) |
|
|
|
43 | (2) |
|
|
|
45 | (4) |
| 3 Rate of Mass Transfer |
|
49 | (6) |
|
|
|
49 | (1) |
|
|
|
50 | (1) |
|
3.3 Co-absorption and/or Simultaneous Desorption |
|
|
51 | (1) |
|
3.4 Convection and Diffusion |
|
|
51 | (1) |
|
|
|
51 | (1) |
|
3.6 Axially along the Column |
|
|
52 | (1) |
|
|
|
52 | (1) |
|
3.8 Rate versus Equilibrium Approaches |
|
|
53 | (1) |
|
|
|
53 | (2) |
| 4 Chemistry in Acid Gas Treating |
|
55 | (32) |
|
|
|
55 | (2) |
|
|
|
57 | (6) |
|
4.3 Acid Character of CO2 and H2S |
|
|
63 | (2) |
|
4.4 The H2S Chemistry with any Alkanolamine |
|
|
65 | (1) |
|
4.5 Chemistry of CO2 with Primary and Secondary Alkanolamines |
|
|
65 | (7) |
|
4.5.1 Zwitterion Mechanism |
|
|
66 | (1) |
|
4.5.2 Termolecular Mechanism of Crooks and Donnellan |
|
|
67 | (2) |
|
4.5.3 Australian Approach |
|
|
69 | (1) |
|
4.5.4 Older Representations |
|
|
70 | (2) |
|
4.6 The Chemistry of Tertiary Amines |
|
|
72 | (1) |
|
4.7 Chemistry of the Minor Sulfur Containing Gases |
|
|
73 | (5) |
|
|
|
74 | (2) |
|
|
|
76 | (1) |
|
4.7.3 Chemistry of Mercaptans (RSH) |
|
|
77 | (1) |
|
4.8 Sterically Hindered Amines |
|
|
78 | (2) |
|
4.9 Hot Carbonate Absorbent Systems |
|
|
80 | (2) |
|
4.10 Simultaneous Absorption of H2S and CO2 |
|
|
82 | (1) |
|
4.11 Reaction Mechanisms and Activators-Final Words |
|
|
82 | (1) |
|
4.12 Review Questions, Problems and Challenges |
|
|
82 | (1) |
|
|
|
83 | (4) |
| 5 Physical Chemistry Topics |
|
87 | (24) |
|
|
|
87 | (1) |
|
5.2 Discussion of Solvents |
|
|
87 | (3) |
|
5.3 Acid-Base Considerations |
|
|
90 | (8) |
|
5.3.1 Arrhenius, Bronsted and Lewis |
|
|
90 | (1) |
|
5.3.2 Weak and Strong Acids and Bases |
|
|
91 | (1) |
|
|
|
91 | (1) |
|
5.3.4 Strength of Acids and Bases |
|
|
92 | (1) |
|
|
|
93 | (3) |
|
5.3.6 Buffer Action in the NaOH or KOH Based CO2 Absorbents |
|
|
96 | (2) |
|
5.4 The Amine-CO2 Buffer System |
|
|
98 | (2) |
|
5.5 Gas Solubilities, Henry's and Raoult's Laws |
|
|
100 | (5) |
|
|
|
101 | (2) |
|
|
|
103 | (1) |
|
|
|
104 | (1) |
|
5.6 Solubilities of Solids |
|
|
105 | (1) |
|
|
|
105 | (1) |
|
5.8 Partial Molar Properties and Representation |
|
|
106 | (1) |
|
5.9 Hydration and Hydrolysis |
|
|
107 | (1) |
|
|
|
107 | (1) |
|
|
|
108 | (3) |
| 6 Diffusion |
|
111 | (16) |
|
|
|
111 | (3) |
|
6.2 Concentrated Mixtures |
|
|
114 | (2) |
|
6.3 Values of Diffusion Coefficients |
|
|
116 | (5) |
|
|
|
117 | (2) |
|
6.3.2 Liquid Phase Values |
|
|
119 | (2) |
|
|
|
121 | (1) |
|
6.5 Interaction with Surfaces |
|
|
122 | (1) |
|
6.6 Multicomponent Situations |
|
|
122 | (1) |
|
|
|
122 | (3) |
|
|
|
122 | (1) |
|
|
|
123 | (1) |
|
6.7.3 Liquid Phase Diffusion of H2O in TEG |
|
|
124 | (1) |
|
|
|
125 | (1) |
|
|
|
126 | (1) |
| 7 Absorption Column Mass Transfer Analysis |
|
127 | (26) |
|
|
|
127 | (1) |
|
|
|
128 | (1) |
|
|
|
128 | (1) |
|
7.4 The Overall Mass Transfer Coefficients and the Interface |
|
|
129 | (3) |
|
7.4.1 Overall Gas Side Mass Transfer Coefficient |
|
|
130 | (1) |
|
7.4.2 Overall Liquid Side Mass Transfer Coefficient |
|
|
131 | (1) |
|
7.5 Control Volumes, Mass and Energy - Balances |
|
|
132 | (3) |
|
7.5.1 The Relation between Gas and Liquid Concentrations |
|
|
132 | (2) |
|
7.5.2 Height of Column Based on Gas Side Analysis |
|
|
134 | (1) |
|
7.5.3 Height of Column Based on Liquid Side Analysis |
|
|
134 | (1) |
|
7.6 Analytical Solution and Its Limitations |
|
|
135 | (2) |
|
|
|
137 | (1) |
|
7.8 Operating and Equilibrium Lines - A Graphical Representation |
|
|
138 | (1) |
|
7.9 Other Concentration Units |
|
|
139 | (1) |
|
7.10 Concentrated Mixtures and Simultaneous Absorption |
|
|
140 | (3) |
|
7.11 Liquid or Gas Side Control? A Few Pointers |
|
|
143 | (1) |
|
7.12 The Equilibrium Stage Alternative Approach |
|
|
144 | (1) |
|
7.13 Co-absorption in a Defined Column |
|
|
145 | (1) |
|
|
|
146 | (5) |
|
7.14.1 Ammonia Train CO2 Removal with Sepasolv, NTUs |
|
|
146 | (2) |
|
7.14.2 Ammonia Train CO2 Removal with Selexol, NTUs |
|
|
148 | (1) |
|
7.14.3 Ammonia Train CO2 Removal with Selexol, NTUs by Numerical Integration |
|
|
149 | (2) |
|
|
|
151 | (2) |
| 8 Column Hardware |
|
153 | (28) |
|
|
|
153 | (1) |
|
|
|
154 | (8) |
|
8.2.1 Types of Random Packings |
|
|
155 | (2) |
|
8.2.2 Types of Structured Packings |
|
|
157 | (1) |
|
8.2.3 Fluid Flow Design for Packings |
|
|
157 | (5) |
|
8.2.4 Operational Considerations |
|
|
162 | (1) |
|
|
|
162 | (3) |
|
8.3.1 Liquid Distributors |
|
|
162 | (1) |
|
8.3.2 Liquid Redistributors |
|
|
163 | (1) |
|
|
|
164 | (1) |
|
|
|
165 | (1) |
|
8.4 Tray Columns and Trays |
|
|
165 | (5) |
|
|
|
167 | (1) |
|
8.4.2 Functional Parts of a Tray Column |
|
|
167 | (1) |
|
8.4.3 Capacities and Limitations |
|
|
168 | (1) |
|
8.4.4 Flow Regimes on Trays |
|
|
169 | (1) |
|
8.4.5 Tray Column Efficiencies |
|
|
170 | (1) |
|
|
|
170 | (1) |
|
|
|
170 | (3) |
|
8.6.1 Knitted Wire Mesh Pads |
|
|
172 | (1) |
|
|
|
172 | (1) |
|
|
|
173 | (5) |
|
8.7.1 The Sepasolv Example from Chapter 7 |
|
|
173 | (1) |
|
8.7.2 The Selexol Example from Chapter 7 |
|
|
174 | (1) |
|
8.7.3 Natural Gas Treating Example |
|
|
175 | (1) |
|
8.7.4 Example, Flue Gas from CCGT |
|
|
176 | (2) |
|
|
|
178 | (1) |
|
|
|
179 | (2) |
| 9 Rotating Packed Beds |
|
181 | (12) |
|
|
|
181 | (2) |
|
9.2 Flooding and Pressure Drop |
|
|
183 | (1) |
|
|
|
184 | (1) |
|
9.4 Mass Transfer Correlations |
|
|
184 | (3) |
|
9.5 Application to Gas Treating |
|
|
187 | (2) |
|
|
|
188 | (1) |
|
|
|
188 | (1) |
|
|
|
189 | (1) |
|
9.7 Challenges Associated with Rotating Packed Beds |
|
|
189 | (1) |
|
|
|
189 | (4) |
| 10 Mass Transfer Models |
|
193 | (8) |
|
|
|
193 | (2) |
|
|
|
195 | (2) |
|
10.3 Surface Renewal Theory |
|
|
197 | (1) |
|
10.4 Boundary Layer Theory |
|
|
198 | (1) |
|
10.5 Eddy Diffusion, 'Film-Penetration' and More |
|
|
198 | (1) |
|
|
|
199 | (2) |
| 11 Correlations for Mass Transfer Coefficients |
|
201 | (22) |
|
|
|
201 | (1) |
|
11.2 Packings: Generic Considerations |
|
|
201 | (1) |
|
|
|
202 | (4) |
|
|
|
206 | (1) |
|
11.5 Packed Column Correlations |
|
|
206 | (5) |
|
|
|
211 | (1) |
|
|
|
212 | (6) |
|
11.7.1 Treatment of Natural Gas for CO2 Content |
|
|
212 | (1) |
|
11.7.2 Atmospheric Flue Gas CO2 Capture |
|
|
213 | (1) |
|
11.7.3 Treatment of Natural Gas for H2O Content |
|
|
214 | (1) |
|
11.7.4 Comparison of Correlations |
|
|
215 | (3) |
|
|
|
218 | (3) |
|
|
|
221 | (2) |
| 12 Chemistry and Mass Transfer |
|
223 | (32) |
|
|
|
223 | (1) |
|
12.2 Equilibrium or Kinetics |
|
|
223 | (2) |
|
12.3 Diffusion with Chemical Reaction |
|
|
225 | (1) |
|
12.4 Reaction Regimes Related to Mass Transfer |
|
|
226 | (17) |
|
12.4.1 Absorption with Slow Reaction |
|
|
226 | (1) |
|
12.4.2 Fast First Order Irreversible Reaction |
|
|
227 | (3) |
|
12.4.3 Instantaneous Irreversible Reaction |
|
|
230 | (4) |
|
12.4.4 Instantaneous Reversible Reaction |
|
|
234 | (8) |
|
12.4.5 Second Order Irreversible Reaction |
|
|
242 | (1) |
|
|
|
243 | (3) |
|
12.5.1 Transition from Slow to Fast Reaction |
|
|
245 | (1) |
|
12.6 Arbitrary, Reversible Reactions and/or Parallel Reactions |
|
|
246 | (1) |
|
|
|
247 | (1) |
|
|
|
248 | (5) |
|
12.8.1 Natural Gas Problem with MEA |
|
|
248 | (2) |
|
|
|
250 | (1) |
|
12.8.3 Natural Gas Problem Revisited with MDEA |
|
|
251 | (2) |
|
|
|
253 | (1) |
|
|
|
254 | (1) |
| 13 Selective Absorption of H2S |
|
255 | (12) |
|
|
|
255 | (1) |
|
13.2 Theoretical Discussion of Rate Based Selectivity |
|
|
256 | (2) |
|
13.3 What Fundamental Information is Available in the Literature? |
|
|
258 | (2) |
|
|
|
258 | (1) |
|
13.3.2 Rate and Selectivity Research Data |
|
|
259 | (1) |
|
13.4 Process Options and Industrial Practice |
|
|
260 | (2) |
|
|
|
262 | (1) |
|
13.6 Process Intensification |
|
|
262 | (1) |
|
|
|
262 | (2) |
|
|
|
264 | (3) |
| 14 Gas Dehydration |
|
267 | (16) |
|
|
|
267 | (1) |
|
|
|
268 | (1) |
|
14.3 Glycol Based Processes |
|
|
269 | (4) |
|
14.4 Contaminants and Countermeasures |
|
|
273 | (1) |
|
14.5 Operational Problems |
|
|
274 | (1) |
|
14.6 TEG Equilibrium Data |
|
|
274 | (2) |
|
14.7 Hydrate Inhibition in Pipelines |
|
|
276 | (1) |
|
14.8 Determination of Water |
|
|
276 | (1) |
|
|
|
277 | (3) |
|
14.9.1 Example 1: Check for Hydrate Potential |
|
|
277 | (1) |
|
14.9.2 Example 2: TEG and Water Balance |
|
|
277 | (2) |
|
14.9.3 Example 3: Tower Diameter |
|
|
279 | (1) |
|
14.9.4 Example 4: Mass Transfer Resistances |
|
|
279 | (1) |
|
|
|
280 | (3) |
| 15 Experimental Techniques |
|
283 | (24) |
|
|
|
283 | (1) |
|
|
|
283 | (2) |
|
|
|
285 | (4) |
|
|
|
285 | (1) |
|
15.3.2 Principle and Experimental Layout |
|
|
286 | (1) |
|
15.3.3 Mathematics and Practicalities |
|
|
287 | (1) |
|
|
|
288 | (1) |
|
|
|
289 | (2) |
|
|
|
289 | (1) |
|
15.4.2 Mathematics and Practicalities |
|
|
290 | (1) |
|
|
|
290 | (1) |
|
|
|
291 | (2) |
|
|
|
291 | (1) |
|
15.5.2 Principle and Experimental Layout |
|
|
291 | (2) |
|
15.5.3 Mathematics and Practicalities |
|
|
293 | (1) |
|
|
|
293 | (1) |
|
|
|
293 | (2) |
|
|
|
293 | (1) |
|
15.6.2 Principle and Experimental Layout |
|
|
293 | (1) |
|
15.6.3 Mathematics and Practicalities |
|
|
294 | (1) |
|
|
|
295 | (1) |
|
|
|
295 | (3) |
|
|
|
295 | (1) |
|
15.7.2 Principle and Experimental Layout |
|
|
295 | (2) |
|
15.7.3 Mathematics and Practicalities |
|
|
297 | (1) |
|
|
|
297 | (1) |
|
15.8 Other Mass Transfer Methods Less Used |
|
|
298 | (2) |
|
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
15.8.4 Kinetic Measurement Techniques Summarised |
|
|
298 | (2) |
|
15.9 Other Techniques in Gas-Liquid Mass Transfer |
|
|
300 | (1) |
|
15.10 Equilibrium Measurements |
|
|
300 | (3) |
|
15.10.1 Physical Solubilities |
|
|
300 | (1) |
|
15.10.2 Chemical Solubilities |
|
|
301 | (2) |
|
15.11 Data Interpretation and Sub-Models |
|
|
303 | (1) |
|
|
|
303 | (4) |
| 16 Absorption Equilibria |
|
307 | (12) |
|
|
|
307 | (1) |
|
16.2 Fundamental Relations |
|
|
308 | (3) |
|
16.3 Literature Data Reported |
|
|
311 | (1) |
|
|
|
312 | (1) |
|
|
|
313 | (1) |
|
|
|
313 | (1) |
|
16.7 Electrolyte NRTL (Austgen-Bishnoi-Chen-Rochelle) |
|
|
314 | (1) |
|
|
|
314 | (1) |
|
|
|
315 | (1) |
|
|
|
315 | (1) |
|
|
|
316 | (1) |
|
|
|
316 | (3) |
| 17 Desorption |
|
319 | (14) |
|
|
|
319 | (3) |
|
17.2 Chemistry of Desorption |
|
|
322 | (2) |
|
17.2.1 Zwitterion Based Analysis |
|
|
323 | (1) |
|
|
|
323 | (1) |
|
17.2.3 Alternative Mechanisms |
|
|
323 | (1) |
|
17.2.4 For Tertiary Amines |
|
|
324 | (1) |
|
|
|
324 | (1) |
|
17.3 Kinetics of Reaction |
|
|
324 | (1) |
|
|
|
325 | (2) |
|
17.5 Desorption Process Analysis and Modelling |
|
|
327 | (1) |
|
17.6 Unconventional Approaches to Desorption |
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
|
|
329 | (4) |
| 18 Heat Exchangers |
|
333 | (12) |
|
|
|
333 | (1) |
|
|
|
333 | (4) |
|
|
|
333 | (1) |
|
|
|
333 | (1) |
|
18.2.3 Kettle Reboiler Design |
|
|
334 | (2) |
|
18.2.4 Reboiler Specifics |
|
|
336 | (1) |
|
18.2.5 Alternatives to Kettle Reboiler |
|
|
336 | (1) |
|
18.3 Desorber Overhead Condenser |
|
|
337 | (1) |
|
|
|
337 | (1) |
|
|
|
337 | (1) |
|
18.3.3 The Condenser Design |
|
|
337 | (1) |
|
|
|
338 | (1) |
|
18.4 Economiser or Lean/Rich Heat Exchanger |
|
|
338 | (3) |
|
|
|
338 | (1) |
|
18.4.2 Design Considerations |
|
|
339 | (2) |
|
|
|
341 | (1) |
|
18.6 Water Wash Circulation Cooler |
|
|
341 | (1) |
|
18.7 Heat Exchanger Alternatives |
|
|
341 | (1) |
|
|
|
342 | (1) |
|
|
|
343 | (2) |
| 19 Solution Management |
|
345 | (14) |
|
|
|
345 | (1) |
|
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
19.3 Feed Gas Pretreatment |
|
|
346 | (2) |
|
19.4 Rich Absorbent Flash |
|
|
348 | (1) |
|
|
|
348 | (3) |
|
19.5.1 Active Carbon Filter |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
|
|
350 | (1) |
|
|
|
351 | (2) |
|
19.6.1 Traditional Reclaiming |
|
|
351 | (1) |
|
19.6.2 Ion Exchange Reclaiming |
|
|
352 | (1) |
|
19.6.3 Electrodialysis Reclaiming |
|
|
353 | (1) |
|
19.7 Chemicals to Combat Foaming |
|
|
353 | (2) |
|
19.8 Corrosion Inhibitors |
|
|
355 | (1) |
|
|
|
355 | (1) |
|
19.10 Solution Containment |
|
|
355 | (1) |
|
|
|
355 | (1) |
|
19.12 Cleaning the Plant Equipment |
|
|
356 | (1) |
|
19.13 Final Words on Solution Management |
|
|
356 | (1) |
|
|
|
356 | (3) |
| 20 Absorption-Desorption Cycle |
|
359 | (12) |
|
20.1 The Cycle and the Dimensioning Specifications |
|
|
359 | (3) |
|
20.2 Alternative Cycle Variations |
|
|
362 | (2) |
|
|
|
364 | (1) |
|
20.4 Matching Process and Treating Demands |
|
|
365 | (1) |
|
|
|
366 | (2) |
|
20.6 Flowsheet Variations to Save Desorption Energy |
|
|
368 | (1) |
|
|
|
369 | (2) |
| 21 Degradation |
|
371 | (4) |
|
21.1 Introduction to Degradation |
|
|
371 | (1) |
|
21.2 Carbamate Polymerisation |
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
21.4 Oxidative Degradation |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
21.5 Corrosion and Degradation |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
21.6 The Effect of Heat Stable Salts (HSSs) |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
21.7 SOx and NOx in Feed Gas |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
|
|
374 | (1) |
| 22 Materials, Corrosion, Inhibitors |
|
375 | (8) |
|
|
|
375 | (1) |
|
|
|
376 | (1) |
|
|
|
377 | (1) |
|
22.4 Protective Layers and What Makes Them Break Down (Chemistry) |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
22.5 Fluid Velocities and Corrosion |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
22.6 Stress Induced Corrosion |
|
|
379 | (1) |
|
22.7 Effect of Heat Stable Salts (HSS) |
|
|
379 | (1) |
|
|
|
379 | (1) |
|
22.9 Problem Areas, Observations and Mitigation Actions |
|
|
380 | (1) |
|
|
|
380 | (3) |
| 23 Technological Fronts |
|
383 | (6) |
|
23.1 Historical Background |
|
|
383 | (1) |
|
23.2 Fundamental Understanding and Absorbent Trends |
|
|
384 | (1) |
|
23.3 Natural Gas Treating |
|
|
385 | (1) |
|
|
|
385 | (1) |
|
|
|
386 | (1) |
|
23.6 Where Are We Heading? |
|
|
386 | (1) |
|
|
|
387 | (2) |
| 24 Flue Gas Treating |
|
389 | (8) |
|
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
24.2 Pressure Drop and Size Issues |
|
|
390 | (1) |
|
24.3 Absorbent Degradation |
|
|
390 | (1) |
|
24.4 Treated Gas as Effluent |
|
|
390 | (1) |
|
24.5 CO2 Export Specification |
|
|
391 | (1) |
|
|
|
391 | (1) |
|
|
|
392 | (2) |
|
24.8 The Greenhouse Gas Problem |
|
|
394 | (2) |
|
24.8.1 Global Warming and Increased Level of CO2 |
|
|
394 | (1) |
|
24.8.2 Geological Storage |
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
24.8.4 Political Challenges |
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
|
|
396 | (1) |
|
|
|
396 | (1) |
| 25 Natural Gas Treating (and Syngas) |
|
397 | (4) |
|
|
|
397 | (1) |
|
25.2 Gas Export Specification |
|
|
398 | (1) |
|
25.3 Natural Gas Contaminants and Foaming |
|
|
398 | (1) |
|
|
|
399 | (1) |
|
25.5 Regeneration by Flash |
|
|
399 | (1) |
|
25.6 Choice of Absorbents |
|
|
399 | (1) |
|
|
|
400 | (1) |
| 26 Treating in Various Situations |
|
401 | (4) |
|
26.1 Introduction and Environmental Perspective |
|
|
401 | (1) |
|
26.2 End of Pipe Solutions |
|
|
401 | (1) |
|
|
|
402 | (1) |
|
|
|
402 | (1) |
|
|
|
403 | (1) |
|
|
|
403 | (2) |
| Index |
|
405 | |