| Preface |
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| A Note on Heritage |
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| Part One: Models Of Teaching: A Working Professional Repertoire |
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The models are introduced briefly, along with ideas about how to build learning communities in classes and the school as a whole. |
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Chapter One Where Models of Teaching Come From: Constructing Knowledge and Skill to Help Our Students Construct Knowledge and Skill |
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The product of teacher-researchers comes to us in the form of models of teaching that enable us to construct optimal learning environments for our students. |
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From the time of the academies in Greece and Rome, teachers have generated innovative approaches to learning and teaching. |
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Succeeding generations have given birth to additional ways of helping students learn. |
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As teachers we can draw on these products and use them to help our students become effective and creative learners. |
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Chapter Two Building the Community of Expert Learners: Taking Advantage of Our Students' Capacity to Learn (and Ours) |
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We celebrate learning and the virtues of social support for learning. |
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Classes and student bodies need to be developed into learning communities and provided with the models of learning that enable students to become expert learners. |
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We study how to build these communities, including developing hybrid approaches to teaching/learning, with the resources of ICT integrated with campus teaching. |
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Increasingly, a community of learners will be made up of students from more than one venue, linked by electronic communication. |
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| Part Two: The Basic Information-Processing Models Of Teaching |
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How can we and our students best acquire information, organize it, and explain it? Here are several models that are directly aligned with the new curriculum standards-frameworks that embrace teaching students with the methods of the disciplines underlying them. |
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As we remind ourselves continuously, a major outcome of these models is the development of capacity to learn, to collect and approach information confidently, and to help one another become a community of learners. |
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The tools learned by finding and managing information support the social, personal, and behavioral families. |
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Information-processing models provide academic substance to social models, ways of thinking for personal inquiry, and goals for many of the behavioral models. |
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Chapter Three Learning to Learn Inductively: The Really, Really Basic Model of Teaching |
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Human beings are born to build concepts. |
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The infant, crawling around, feeling things and bumping into them, observing people's actions and listening to them, is born to acquire information that is sifted and organized, building the conceptual structures that guide our lives. |
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The inductive model builds on and enhances the inborn capacity of human beings to organize information about their environments and build and test categories-concepts-that make their world more comprehensible and predictable. |
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This model is placed first in this part because many other models draw on it, and because when it is combined with others, particularly some social models (e.g., group investigation), student learning can be dramatic. |
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Chapter Four Scientific Inquiry: Building Learning around Investigations |
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From the time of Aristotle, we have had educators who taught science in the making rather than teaching a few facts and hoping for the best. |
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We introduce you to a model of teaching that is science in the making. |
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Today, students can identify a domain of study or problem, conduct investigations of their own, and connect to studies available on the web. |
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Virtual investigations and simulations can shorten time and bring students into labs and field studies where complex equipment is available and faraway settings can be studied. |
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Chapter Five The Picture Word Inductive Model: Developing Literacy through Inquiry |
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Built on the language experience approach, the picture word inductive model enables beginning readers to develop sight vocabularies, learn to inquire into the structure of words and sentences, write sentences and paragraphs, and thus become powerful language learners. |
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| Part Three: Special Purpose Information-Processing Models |
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The models in Part Two can be used for some very broad purposes, including designing lessons, units, courses, and distance offerings. |
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The more specialized models in Part Three, however, are designed specifically to: • Teach concepts |
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• Teach students to memorize more effectively, including facts, concepts, and even the core ideas of philosophies |
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• Teach students to think divergently by learning to use synectics processes to make metaphoric comparisons to break set and learn unfamiliar material better, develop more solutions to problems, and build, richer and more productive social relationships |
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• Design presentations with advance organizers, including lectures, media, and distance offerings |
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• Teach basic inquiry skills |
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Chapter Six Concept Attainment: The Explicit Teaching of Important Concepts |
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Students can not only develop concepts, they also can learn concepts developed by others. |
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Based on research on how people develop categories, concept attainment teaches students how to learn and use concepts and develop and test hypotheses. |
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The authors have had a considerable role in developing variations on this model and applying them to a range of curriculum areas. |
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This model is an important staple for teachers and students at all grades and a particularly interesting one for the design of online offerings where the teaching of concepts is central. |
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Chapter Seven Synectics: Teaching the Left Brain to Put the Right Side to Work |
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Creative thought has often been thought of as something genetically given to a special few, and something that the rest of us cannot aspire to. |
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Synectics brings to all students the development of metaphoric thinking-the foundation of creative thought. |
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The model continues to improve as we learn more about how to develop analogies to break set, understand better, and solve problems. |
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Importantly, a long-term effect occurs as students learn how to generate fresh ideas and solve problems in their future lives. |
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Chapter Eight Memorization: Getting the Facts Straight, Now and for the Long Term |
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Memorization has had something of a bad name, mostly because of deadly drills and poorly designed textbooks and lectures. |
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However, contemporary research and innovative teachers have created methods that not only improve our efficiency in memorization, but also make the process delightful. |
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The research provides a variety of ways to design presentations, readings, distance offerings, and on-campus inquiries that ease the way to long-term retention of key information. |
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Chapter Nine Using Advance Organizers to Design Presentations: Scaffolding Lectures, ICT, and Distance Offerings |
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Learning from presentations has had almost as bad a name as learning by memorization. |
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David Ausubel developed a system for creating lectures and other presentations that will increase learner activity and, subsequently, learning. |
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A scaffold provides a cognitive map of the material for students to organize their study and assess their progress. |
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This is a particularly useful model for the design of distance learning packages. |
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Students can learn to develop scaffolds as a part of their inquiries. |
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Chapter Ten The Inquiry Training Model: Training Inquiry Skills Directly |
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Here we have a nicely structured model that begins with puzzling situations and continues with exercises that teach students to ask questions and assay the responses they get. |
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| Part Four: The Social Family Of Models Of Teaching |
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Working together just might enhance all of us. |
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The social family expands what we can do together and generates the creation of democratic relationships in venues large and small. |
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In addition, the creation of learning communities can enhance the learning of all students dramatically. |
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Interestingly, collaboration among people in different settings is remarkably satisfying, as witnessed in the rise of social media. |
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With respect to collaboration in academic learning, a vast network of systems is fast developing as people interested in particular things find colleagues who share their interests. |
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Chapter Eleven Partners in Learning: Getting Everybody on Board |
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Can two students increase their learning when paired? Yes. |
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Will they develop better social and academic skills if they work together on projects? Yes. |
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Can most students profit from training to collaborate? Yes. |
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Do collaborative classrooms increase productive study and time on task and decrease unproductive and disruptive behavior? Yes. |
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Are cooperative learning models applicable to K-12 and across curriculum areas? Yes. |
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This chapter looks at some of the basic, easy-to-implement forms of cooperative learning. |
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Chapter Twelve Group Investigation: Rigorous Inquiry through Democratic Process |
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Can students organized into a democratic learning community learn to apply scientific methods to their learning? You bet they can. |
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Group investigation can be used to redesign schools; increase personal, social, and academic learning among all students; and satisfy both learners and teachers. |
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The project method is a recent variant that organizes students to attack specific social problems. |
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The vast resources of the web are putting new wheels under the complex social models. |
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And, online courses do not have to be presentation only or step-by-step drill. |
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They can be designed with vigorous collaborative models, albeit at a distance. |
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Chapter Thirteen Role Playing: Studying Values |
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Values provide the center of our behavior, helping us get direction and understand others. |
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Policy issues involve the understanding of values and the costs and benefits of selecting some solutions rather than others. |
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In these models, values are central. |
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Think for a moment about the issues that face our society right now-research on cells, international peace, including our roles in the Middle East, the battle against AIDS, poverty, and who controls the decisions about pregnancy and abortion, not to mention just getting along together. |
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| Part Five: The Personal Family Of Models |
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The learner always does the learning. |
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His or her personality interacts with the learning environment. |
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How do we give the learner centrality when we are trying to get that same person to grow and respond to tasks we believe will enhance growth? And how can electronic connections be shaped so that they are not just a matter of arguing online, but reflection and growth? Oddly, some kinds of distance counseling can be quite helpful. |
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Virtual counseling will be a developing field. |
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Chapter Fourteen Nondirective Teaching: The Learner at the Center |
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How do we think about ourselves as learners? As people? How can we organize schooling so that the personalities and emotions of students are taken into account? Let us inquire into the person who is the center of the education process. |
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Nondirective methods can be supported through distance means. |
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During the school years and later, students can be better connected to their teachers and counselors and supported as they reflect on themselves and take steps to build their self-esteem and ability to relate to others. |
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Much of the support that students need when undertaking investigations involving ICT resources, including online courses and other types of distance courses, can be provided in a nondirective fashion. |
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Chapter Fifteen Developing Positive Self-Concepts: Finding the Inner Person and Learning Self-Actualization |
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If you feel good about yourself, you are likely to become a better learner and have a generally better quality of life. |
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But you begin where you are. |
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Self-concept is a likely avenue. |
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The wonderful work by the SIMs group in Kansas has demonstrated what can be done to help students improve their self-images (and their achievement). |
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So how do we learn to practice more productive behaviors? This chapter explores some of the possibilities that are variations on themes developed by therapists, particularly Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Erich Fromm, and Karen Homey from the heyday of innovation in psychology. |
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| Part Six: The Behavioral Family Of Models |
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We enter the world of tasks, performances, and positive and aversive reactions. |
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The study of how behavior is acquired has led to a wide variety of approaches to training. |
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Here we will deal with some of the major behavioral models. |
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Chapter Sixteen Explicit Instruction: Comprehension When Reading and Composing When Writing |
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For a long time the teaching of comprehension seemed elusive, although reading without much comprehension is not actually reading at all. |
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Then researchers began to study the skills that expert readers use and develop ways of teaching those skills to all students. |
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The resulting model is generally referred to as explicit strategy instruction. |
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Chapter Seventeen Mastery Learning: Bit by Bit, Block by Block, We Climb Our Way to Mastery |
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This is the fundamental training model, where new content and skill are introduced, modeled, practiced, and added to the working repertoire. |
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Planning and assessment are the complex parts of the model, but the investment pays off handsomely. |
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Chapter Eighteen Direct Instruction: Applied Psychology Goes to Work |
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Why beat around the bush when you can just deal with things directly? Let's go for it! However, finesse is required, and that is what this chapter is all about. |
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The basic model here is derived from social learning theory. |
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Many distance models-a good deal are of the online variety-are direct, but several need better designs and students need to learn how to use learning strategies to get the most out of them. |
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| Part Seven: The Conditions Of Learning, Learning Styles, And Conceptual Levels |
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Even young children develop learning styles that interact with their environments, including the kinds of teaching they are exposed to. |
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Major types of learning, like identifying and perfecting new ways of learning, involve some degree of discomfort. |
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Learning new material is a product of the school environment and students need to learn to cope with this discomfort or they will, inevitably, hide from new content. |
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We explain the use of conceptual systems theory to match students to models and scaffold them toward integrating information that advances their growth. |
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We summarize the growing lines of research and suggest ways that every teacher can add a bit by teaching from an action research perspective, and we discuss and apply Robert Gagne's marvelous framework for applying research to the task of building curricula. |
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Chapter Nineteen Creating Curricula: The Conditions of Learning |
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Robert Gagne's framework still guides us as we develop effective curricula. |
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His groundbreaking work combined research on levels and types of learning with the problem of designing instruction that builds on how we think and build knowledge. |
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Chapter Twenty Expanding Our Horizons: Making Discomfort Productive |
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By definition, learning requires knowing, thinking, or doing things we couldn't do before the learning took place. |
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Curricula and teaching need to be shaped to take us where we haven't been. |
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The trick is to develop an optimal mismatch so that we are pushed but not overwhelmed. |
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Vygotsky popularized the term zone of proximal development to refer to content, conceptual understanding, skills, and processes that are just beyond our current development but not so demanding that we get lost. |
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These concepts are very important because content and process that are well within our comfort zone, while soothing, do not challenge us to grow. |
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| Appendix: Peer Coaching Guides |
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| References and Related Literature |
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| Index |
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