| 1 An Overview of Multimessenger Astrophysics |
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1 | (28) |
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1 | (3) |
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1.2 Astrophysics and Astroparticle Physics |
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4 | (2) |
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1.3 Multimessenger Astronomy |
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6 | (3) |
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1.4 Experimental Results Not Covered in This Book |
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9 | (1) |
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10 | (3) |
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1.6 Gamma-Rays of GeV and TeV Energies |
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13 | (2) |
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1.7 Neutrino Astrophysics |
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15 | (3) |
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18 | (1) |
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19 | (1) |
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1.10 Laboratories and Detectors for Astroparticle Physics |
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20 | (3) |
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21 | (1) |
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1.10.2 Experiments in the Atmosphere |
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22 | (1) |
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1.10.3 Ground-Based Experiments |
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23 | (1) |
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1.11 Underground Laboratories for Rare Events |
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23 | (3) |
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26 | (3) |
| 2 Charged Cosmic Rays in Our Galaxy |
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29 | (36) |
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2.1 The Discovery of Cosmic Rays |
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30 | (3) |
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2.2 Cosmic Rays and the Early Days of Particle Physics |
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33 | (1) |
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2.3 The Discovery of the Positron and Particle Identification |
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34 | (6) |
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2.3.1 The Motion in a Magnetic Field and the Particle Rigidity |
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34 | (2) |
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2.3.2 The Identification of the Positron |
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36 | (4) |
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2.4 A Toy Telescope for Primary Cosmic Rays |
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40 | (2) |
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2.5 Differential and Integral Flux |
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42 | (2) |
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2.6 The Energy Spectrum of Primary Cosmic Rays |
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44 | (3) |
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2.7 The Physical Properties of the Galaxy |
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47 | (6) |
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2.7.1 The Galactic Magnetic Field |
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49 | (2) |
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2.7.2 The Interstellar Matter Distribution |
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51 | (2) |
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2.8 Low-Energy Cosmic Rays from the Sun |
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53 | (3) |
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2.9 The Effect of the Geomagnetic Field |
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56 | (2) |
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2.10 Number and Energy Density of Cosmic Rays |
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58 | (2) |
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2.11 Energy Considerations on Cosmic Ray Sources |
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60 | (1) |
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2.12 A Note on Gaussian and SI Units in Electromagnetism |
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61 | (3) |
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64 | (1) |
| 3 Direct Cosmic Ray Detection: Protons, Nuclei, Electrons and Antimatter |
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65 | (36) |
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3.1 Generalities on Direct Measurements |
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66 | (2) |
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3.1.1 Generalities and "Data Mining" |
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66 | (1) |
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3.1.2 Energy and Momentum Measurements |
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67 | (1) |
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3.2 The Calorimetric Technique |
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68 | (4) |
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3.2.1 Hadronic Interaction Length and Mean Free Path |
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69 | (1) |
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3.2.2 The Electromagnetic Radiation Length |
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70 | (2) |
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3.2.3 Hadronic Interaction Length and Mean Free Path in the Atmosphere |
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72 | (1) |
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72 | (4) |
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3.4 Satellite Experiments |
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76 | (3) |
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3.4.1 The IMP Experiments |
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76 | (2) |
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3.4.2 The PAMELA Experiment |
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78 | (1) |
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3.5 The AMS-02 Experiment on the International Space Station |
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79 | (4) |
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3.6 Abundances of Elements in the Solar System and ih CRs |
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83 | (2) |
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3.7 Cosmic Abundances and Origin of the Elements |
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85 | (3) |
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3.8 Energy Spectrum of CR Protons and Nuclei |
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88 | (3) |
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3.9 Antimatter in Our Galaxy |
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91 | (1) |
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3.10 Electrons and Positrons |
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92 | (5) |
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3.10.1 The Positron Component |
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94 | (2) |
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3.10.2 Considerations on the e+, e- Components |
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96 | (1) |
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97 | (4) |
| 4 Indirect Cosmic Ray Detection: Particle Showers in the Atmosphere |
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101 | (48) |
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4.1 Introduction and Historical Information |
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102 | (1) |
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4.2 The Structure of the Atmosphere |
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103 | (3) |
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4.3 The Electromagnetic (EM) Cascade |
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106 | (7) |
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4.3.1 Heitler's Model of EM Showers |
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107 | (2) |
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109 | (4) |
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4.4 Showers Initiated by Protons and Nuclei |
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113 | (12) |
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4.4.1 The Muon Component in a Proton-Initiated Cascade |
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117 | (1) |
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4.4.2 The EM Component in a Proton-Initiated Cascade |
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118 | (1) |
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4.4.3 Depth of the Shower Maximum for a Proton Shower |
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119 | (2) |
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4.4.4 Showers Induced by Nuclei: The Superposition Model |
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121 | (4) |
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4.5 The Monte Carlo Simulations of Showers |
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125 | (1) |
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4.6 Detectors of Extensive Air Showers at the Energy of the Knee |
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126 | (9) |
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4.6.1 A Toy Example of an EAS Array |
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129 | (2) |
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4.6.2 Some EAS Experiments |
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131 | (3) |
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4.6.3 Cherenkov Light Produced by EAS Showers |
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134 | (1) |
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4.7 The Time Profile of Cascades |
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135 | (2) |
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4.8 The Arrival Direction of CRs as Measured with EAS Arrays |
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137 | (2) |
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4.9 The CR Flux Measured with EAS Arrays |
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139 | (3) |
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4.10 Mass Composition of CRs Around the Knee |
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142 | (3) |
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4.10.1 The N, Versus NIL Method |
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143 | (1) |
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4.10.2 Depth of the Shower Maximum |
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144 | (1) |
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4.11 Status and Future Experiments |
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145 | (2) |
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147 | (2) |
| 5 Diffusion of Cosmic Rays in the Galaxy |
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149 | (34) |
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5.1 The Overabundance of Li, Be, and B in CRs |
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151 | (5) |
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5.1.1 Why Li, Be, B Are Rare on Earth |
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151 | (1) |
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5.1.2 Production of Li, Be, and B During Propagation |
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151 | (5) |
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5.2 Dating of Cosmic Rays with Radioactive Nuclei |
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156 | (3) |
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5.2.1 Dating "lived" Matter with 14C |
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156 | (1) |
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5.2.2 Unstable Secondarγ-to-Primary Ratios |
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157 | (2) |
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5.3 The Diffusion-Loss Equation |
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159 | (5) |
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5.3.1 The Diffusion Equation with Nuclear Spallation |
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161 | (1) |
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5.3.2 Numerical Estimate of the Diffusion Coefficient D |
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162 | (2) |
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5.4 The Leaky Box Model and Its Evolutions |
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164 | (2) |
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5.5 Energy Dependence of the Escape Time τesc |
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166 | (2) |
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5.6 Energy Spectrum of Cosmic Rays at the Sources |
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168 | (1) |
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5.7 Anisotropies Due to the Diffusion |
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169 | (5) |
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5.7.1 Evidence of Extragalactic CRs Above 8 x 1018 eV |
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172 | (2) |
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5.7.2 The Compton-Getting Effect |
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174 | (1) |
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5.8 The Electron Energy Spectrum at the Sources |
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174 | (7) |
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5.8.1 Synchrotron Radiation |
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175 | (4) |
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5.8.2 Expected Spectral Index of Electrons |
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179 | (1) |
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5.8.3 Average Distance of Accelerators of Electrons |
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180 | (1) |
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181 | (2) |
| 6 Galactic Accelerators and Acceleration Mechanisms |
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183 | (42) |
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6.1 Second- and First-Order Fermi Acceleration Mechanisms |
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185 | (9) |
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185 | (3) |
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6.1.2 The Second-Order Fermi Acceleration Mechanism |
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188 | (2) |
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6.1.3 The First-Order Fermi Acceleration Mechanism |
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190 | (3) |
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6.1.4 The Power-Law Energy Spectrum from the Fermi Model |
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193 | (1) |
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6.2 Diffusive Shock Acceleration in Strong Shock Waves |
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194 | (2) |
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6.3 Supernova Remnants (SNRs) and the Standard Model of CRs Acceleration |
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196 | (4) |
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6.3.1 SNRs as Galactic CR Accelerators |
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196 | (1) |
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6.3.2 Relevant Quantities in SNR |
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197 | (3) |
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6.4 Maximum Energy Attainable in the Supernova Model |
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200 | (2) |
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6.5 The Spectral Index of the Energy Spectrum |
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202 | (6) |
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6.5.1 The Escape Probability |
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203 | (2) |
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6.5.2 A Shock Front in a Mono-Atomic Gas |
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205 | (3) |
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6.6 Success and Limits of the Standard Model of Cosmic Ray Acceleration |
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208 | (2) |
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6.7 White Dwarfs, Neutron Stars and Pulsars |
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210 | (7) |
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211 | (2) |
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213 | (2) |
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215 | (2) |
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6.8 Stellar Mass Black Holes |
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217 | (2) |
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6.9 Possible Galactic Sources of Cosmic Rays Above the Knee |
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219 | (4) |
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6.9.1 A Simple Model Involving Pulsars |
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220 | (1) |
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6.9.2 A Simple Model Involving Binary Systems |
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221 | (2) |
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223 | (2) |
| 7 The Extragalactic Sources and Ultra High Energy Cosmic Rays |
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225 | (44) |
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7.1 Hubble's Law and the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation |
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226 | (4) |
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7.2 The Large-Scale Structure of the Universe |
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230 | (2) |
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7.3 Anisotropy of UHECRs: The Extragalactic Magnetic Fields |
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232 | (1) |
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7.4 The Quest for Extragalactic Sources of UHECRs |
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233 | (5) |
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7.5 Propagation of UHECRs |
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238 | (6) |
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7.5.1 The Adiabatic Energy Loss |
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239 | (1) |
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7.5.2 The Propagation in the CMB: The GZK Cut-Off |
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239 | (3) |
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7.5.3 e± Pair Production by Protons on the CMB |
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242 | (1) |
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7.5.4 Propagation in the Extragalactic Magnetic Fields |
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243 | (1) |
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7.6 Fluorescent Light and Fluorescence Detectors |
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244 | (5) |
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7.7 UHECR Measurements with a Single Technique |
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249 | (2) |
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7.8 Large Hybrid Observatories of UHECRs |
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251 | (5) |
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7.9 Recent Observations of UHECRs |
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256 | (5) |
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7.9.1 The Flux and Arrival Directions of UHECRs |
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256 | (2) |
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7.9.2 The Chemical Composition of UHECRs |
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258 | (2) |
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7.9.3 Correlation of UHECRs with Astrophysical Sources |
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260 | (1) |
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7.10 Measuring EeV Neutrinos with EAS Arrays |
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261 | (3) |
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7.11 Constraints on Top-Down Models |
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264 | (1) |
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7.12 Summary and Discussion of the Results |
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264 | (2) |
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266 | (3) |
| 8 The Sky Seen in γ-Rays |
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269 | (44) |
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8.1 The Spectral Energy Distribution (SED) and Multiwavelength Observations |
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271 | (2) |
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8.2 Astrophysical γ-Rays: The Leptonic Model |
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273 | (8) |
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8.2.1 The Synchrotron Radiation from a Power-Law Spectrum |
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273 | (2) |
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8.2.2 Synchrotron Self-Absorption |
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275 | (3) |
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8.2.3 Inverse Compton Scattering |
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278 | (3) |
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8.3 The Synchrotron Self-Compton (SSC) Mechanism |
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281 | (2) |
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8.4 Astrophysical γ-Rays: The Hadronic Model |
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283 | (1) |
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8.5 Energy Spectrum of γ-Rays from π0 Decay |
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284 | (2) |
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8.6 Galactic Sources and γ-Rays: A Simple Estimate |
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286 | (2) |
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8.7 The Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory (CGRO) Legacy |
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288 | (4) |
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8.7.1 The EGRET γ-Ray Sky |
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289 | (3) |
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8.8 Fermi-LAT and Other Experiments for γ-Ray Astronomy |
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292 | (3) |
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292 | (1) |
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293 | (1) |
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294 | (1) |
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294 | (1) |
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8.9 Diffuse γ-Rays in the Galactic Plane |
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295 | (4) |
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8.9.1 An Estimate of the Diffuse γ-Ray Flux |
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297 | (2) |
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8.10 The Fermi-LAT Catalogs |
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299 | (5) |
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304 | (4) |
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308 | (2) |
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8.13 Limits of γ-Ray Observations from Space |
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310 | (2) |
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312 | (1) |
| 9 The TeV Sky and Multiwavelength Astrophysics |
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313 | (42) |
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9.1 The Imaging Cherenkov Technique |
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314 | (7) |
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9.1.1 Gamma-Ray Versus Charged CR Discrimination |
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317 | (1) |
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9.1.2 HESS, VERITAS and MAGIC |
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318 | (3) |
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9.2 EAS Arrays for γ-Astronomy |
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321 | (2) |
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9.3 TeV Astronomy: The Catalog |
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323 | (2) |
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9.4 Gamma-Rays from Pulsars |
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325 | (2) |
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9.5 The CRAB Pulsar and Nebula |
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327 | (2) |
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9.6 The Problem of the Identification of Galactic CR Sources |
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329 | (2) |
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9.7 Extended Supernova Remnants |
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331 | (1) |
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9.8 The SED of Some Peculiar SNRs |
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332 | (4) |
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9.9 Summary of the Study of Galactic Accelerators |
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336 | (1) |
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337 | (3) |
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9.11 The Extragalactic γ-Ray Sky |
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340 | (2) |
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9.12 The Spectral Energy Distributions of Blazars |
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342 | (4) |
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9.12.1 Quasi-Simultaneous SEDs of Fermi-LAT Blazars |
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342 | (3) |
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9.12.2 Simultaneous SED Campaigns and Mrk 421 |
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345 | (1) |
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9.13 Jets in Astrophysics |
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346 | (3) |
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9.13.1 Time Variability in Jets |
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347 | (2) |
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9.14 The Extragalactic Background Light |
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349 | (3) |
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352 | (3) |
| 10 High-Energy Neutrino Astrophysics |
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355 | (46) |
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10.1 The CR, γ-Ray and Neutrino Connection |
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356 | (1) |
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10.2 Neutrino Detection Principle |
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357 | (2) |
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10.3 Background in Large Volume Neutrino Detectors |
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359 | (3) |
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10.4 Neutrino Detectors and Neutrino Telescopes |
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362 | (2) |
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10.5 Reconstruction of Neutrino-Induced Tracks and Showers |
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364 | (3) |
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10.5.1 Muon Neutrino Detection |
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364 | (2) |
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366 | (1) |
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10.6 Cosmic Neutrino Flux Estimates |
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367 | (6) |
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10.6.1 A Reference Neutrino Flux from a Galactic Source |
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367 | (2) |
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10.6.2 Extragalactic Diffuse Neutrino Flux |
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369 | (1) |
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10.6.3 Neutrinos from GRBs |
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370 | (3) |
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10.7 Why km3-Scale Telescopes? |
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373 | (6) |
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10.7.1 The Neutrino Effective Area of Real Detectors |
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376 | (2) |
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10.7.2 Number of Optical Sensors in a Neutrino Telescope |
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378 | (1) |
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10.8 Water and Ice Properties |
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379 | (1) |
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10.9 Running and Planned Neutrino Detectors |
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380 | (6) |
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10.9.1 Telescopes in the Antarctic Ice |
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381 | (2) |
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10.9.2 Telescopes in the Mediterranean Sea |
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383 | (1) |
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10.9.3 A Telescope in Lake Baikal |
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384 | (1) |
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10.9.4 Ultra High Energy (UHE) Neutrino Detection |
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385 | (1) |
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10.10 Results from Neutrino Telescopes |
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386 | (5) |
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10.10.1 Point-Like Sources |
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387 | (3) |
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10.10.2 Limits from GRBs and Unresolved Sources |
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390 | (1) |
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10.11 The First Evidences of Cosmic Neutrinos |
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391 | (6) |
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10.11.1 The High-Energy Starting Events (HESE) |
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391 | (2) |
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10.11.2 The Passing Muons |
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393 | (1) |
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10.11.3 Discussion of the Results and Perspectives for Neutrino Astrophysics |
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394 | (1) |
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10.11.4 Cosmogenic Neutrinos |
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395 | (2) |
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10.12 Real-Time Alert and Multimessenger Follow-Up Programs |
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397 | (1) |
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398 | (3) |
| 11 Atmospheric Muons and Neutrinos |
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401 | (40) |
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11.1 Nucleons in the Atmosphere |
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402 | (3) |
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11.2 Secondary Mesons in the Atmosphere |
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405 | (4) |
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11.3 Muons and Neutrinos from Charged Meson Decays |
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409 | (4) |
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11.3.1 The Conventional Atmospheric Neutrino Flux |
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412 | (1) |
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11.3.2 The Prompt Component in the Muon and Neutrino Flux |
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412 | (1) |
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11.4 The Particle Flux at Sea Level |
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413 | (3) |
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11.5 Measurements of Muons at Sea Level |
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416 | (2) |
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418 | (2) |
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11.6.1 The Depth-Intensity Relation |
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418 | (1) |
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11.6.2 Characteristics of Underground/Underwater Muons |
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419 | (1) |
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11.7 Early Experiments for Atmospheric Neutrinos |
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420 | (4) |
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11.8 Oscillations of Atmospheric Neutrinos |
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424 | (1) |
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11.9 Measurement of Atmospheric νμ Oscillations in Underground Experiments |
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425 | (10) |
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11.9.1 Event Topologies in Super-Kamiokande |
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426 | (5) |
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11.9.2 The Iron Calorimeter Soudan 2 Experiment |
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431 | (1) |
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11.9.3 Upward-Going Muons and MACRO |
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431 | (4) |
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11.10 Atmospheric νμ Oscillations and Accelerator Confirmations |
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435 | (2) |
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11.11 Atmospheric Neutrino Flux at High Energies |
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437 | (1) |
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438 | (3) |
| 12 Low-Energy Neutrino Physics and Astrophysics |
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441 | (48) |
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12.1 Stellar Evolution of Solar Mass Stars |
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442 | (4) |
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12.2 The Standard Solar Model and Neutrinos |
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446 | (4) |
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12.3 Solar Neutrino Detection |
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450 | (5) |
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12.4 The SNO Measurement of the Total Neutrino Flux |
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455 | (2) |
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12.5 Oscillations and Solar Neutrinos |
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457 | (2) |
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12.6 Oscillations Among Three Neutrino Families |
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459 | (5) |
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12.6.1 Three-Flavor Oscillation and KamLAND |
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462 | (1) |
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12.6.2 Measurements of theta13 |
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463 | (1) |
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12.7 The Neutrino Flux from the Sun |
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464 | (3) |
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12.7.1 Matter Effect in the Sun |
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464 | (1) |
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12.7.2 The Borexino Experiment at Gran Sasso Lab |
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465 | (1) |
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12.7.3 Summary of Solar Experimental Results |
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466 | (1) |
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12.8 Neutrino Oscillation Parameters |
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467 | (1) |
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12.9 Effects of Neutrino Mixing on Cosmic Neutrinos |
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468 | (2) |
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12.10 Formation of Heavy Elements in Massive Stars |
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470 | (1) |
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471 | (1) |
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12.12 Accreting White Dwarf: Type I Supernovae |
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472 | (1) |
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12.13 Core-Collapse Supernovae (Type II) |
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472 | (6) |
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12.13.1 Computer Simulations of Type II Supernovae |
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473 | (1) |
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12.13.2 Description for a Type II Supernovae |
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474 | (3) |
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12.13.3 Supernovae Producing Long GRBs |
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477 | (1) |
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12.14 Neutrino Signal from a Core-Collapse SN |
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478 | (4) |
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12.14.1 Supernova Rate and Location |
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478 | (1) |
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12.14.2 The Neutrino Signal |
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479 | (1) |
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12.14.3 Detection of Supernova Neutrinos |
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480 | (2) |
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|
482 | (2) |
|
12.16 Stellar Nucleosynthesis and the Origin of Trans-Fe Elements |
|
|
484 | (3) |
|
|
|
487 | (2) |
| 13 Basics on the Observations of Gravitational Waves |
|
489 | (48) |
|
13.1 From Einstein Equation to Gravitational Waves |
|
|
491 | (6) |
|
13.1.1 A Long Story Short |
|
|
491 | (1) |
|
13.1.2 Summary of the Mathematical Background |
|
|
492 | (5) |
|
13.2 Energy Carried by a Gravitational Wave |
|
|
497 | (2) |
|
|
|
499 | (3) |
|
13.4 Ground-Based Laser Interferometers |
|
|
502 | (7) |
|
13.4.1 The Advanced LIGO Interferometers |
|
|
505 | (2) |
|
13.4.2 Sensitivity of Ground-based Interferometers |
|
|
507 | (2) |
|
|
|
509 | (10) |
|
|
|
510 | (5) |
|
13.5.2 Coalescence Stage: Individual Masses |
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
13.5.3 Luminosity Distance and Cosmological Effects |
|
|
516 | (2) |
|
13.5.4 Total Emitted Energy |
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
13.5.5 Ringdown Stage: Spin of the BHs |
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
13.5.6 Source Localization in the Sky |
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
13.6 Astrophysics of Stellar Black Holes After GW150914 |
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
13.7 GW170817, GRB170817A and AT 2017gfo: One Event |
|
|
520 | (8) |
|
|
|
521 | (6) |
|
|
|
527 | (1) |
|
13.8 The Kilonova: Electromagnetic Follow-up of AT 2017gfo |
|
|
528 | (2) |
|
13.9 Perspectives for Observational Cosmology After GW170817 |
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
13.10 GW170817: The Axis Jet, the Afterglow and Neutrinos |
|
|
531 | (2) |
|
13.11 Bursts of GWs from Stellar Gravitational Collapses |
|
|
533 | (2) |
|
|
|
535 | (2) |
| 14 Microcosm and Macrocosm |
|
537 | (36) |
|
14.1 The Standard Model of the Microcosm: The Big Bang |
|
|
539 | (3) |
|
14.2 The Standard Model of Particle Physics and Beyond |
|
|
542 | (1) |
|
14.3 Gravitational Evidence of Dark Matter |
|
|
543 | (2) |
|
|
|
545 | (2) |
|
14.5 Supersymmetry (SUSY) |
|
|
547 | (4) |
|
14.5.1 Minimal Standard Supersymmetric Model (MSSM) |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
14.5.2 Cosmological Constraints and WIMP |
|
|
549 | (2) |
|
14.6 Interactions of WIMPs with Ordinary Matter |
|
|
551 | (4) |
|
14.6.1 WIMPs Annihilation |
|
|
552 | (1) |
|
14.6.2 WIMPs Elastic Scattering |
|
|
553 | (2) |
|
14.7 Direct Detection of Dark Matter: Event Rates |
|
|
555 | (3) |
|
14.8 Direct Searches for WIMPs |
|
|
558 | (6) |
|
14.8.1 Solid-State Cryogenic Detectors |
|
|
560 | (1) |
|
14.8.2 Scintillating Crystals |
|
|
560 | (1) |
|
14.8.3 Noble Liquid Detectors |
|
|
561 | (2) |
|
14.8.4 Present Experimental Results and the Future |
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
14.9 Indirect Searches for WIMPs |
|
|
564 | (7) |
|
14.9.1 Neutrinos from WIMP Annihilation in Massive Objects |
|
|
564 | (3) |
|
14.9.2 Gamma-Rays from WIMPs |
|
|
567 | (2) |
|
14.9.3 The Positron Excess: A WIMP Signature? |
|
|
569 | (2) |
|
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
|
|
572 | (1) |
| 15 Conclusions |
|
573 | (4) |
| Index |
|
577 | |
