| Preface |
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xi | |
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xv | |
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1 Introduction to Welding Mechanics |
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1.1 Basic Concepts of Welding and Welding Mechanics |
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1 | (7) |
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1.2 Process of the Production of Residual Stress and Inherent Strain |
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8 | (19) |
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8 | (4) |
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1.2.2 Heating of Free Bar C |
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12 | (1) |
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1.2.3 Heating of Bar C Fixed at Both Ends |
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13 | (8) |
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1.2.4 Heating Bar C When It Is Connected to a Movable Rigid Body |
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21 | (6) |
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1.3 Reproduction of Residual Stress by Inherent Strain and Inverse Analysis for Inherent Strain |
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27 | (2) |
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1.3.1 Reproduction of Residual Stress by Inherent Strain |
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27 | (1) |
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1.3.2 Inverse Analysis for Inherent Strain |
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28 | (1) |
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1.4 Numerical Examples of Residual Stress, Inherent Strain, and Inherent Displacement |
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29 | (7) |
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1.4.1 Low-Temperature Heating Process |
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30 | (1) |
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1.4.2 Medium-Temperature Heating |
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31 | (2) |
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1.4.3 High-Temperature Heating |
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33 | (1) |
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34 | (2) |
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2 Introduction to Measurement and Prediction of Residual Stresses with the Help of Inherent Strains |
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2.1 Inherent Strains and Resulting Stresses |
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36 | (4) |
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2.1.1 Displacement-Strain Relation (Compatibility) |
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38 | (1) |
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2.1.2 Stress-Strain Relation (Constitution Equation) |
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39 | (1) |
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2.1.3 Equilibrium Condition (Equilibrium Equation) |
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39 | (1) |
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2.2 Measured Strains in Experiments and Inherent Strains |
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40 | (1) |
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2.3 Effective and Noneffective Inherent Strains |
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41 | (1) |
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2.4 Determination of Effective Inherent Strains from Measured Residual Stresses |
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42 | (3) |
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2.5 Most Probable Value of Effective Inherent Strain and Accuracy of the Measurement of Residual Stress |
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45 | (1) |
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2.6 Derivation of Elastic Response Matrix |
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46 | (2) |
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2.7 Measuring Methods and Procedures of Residual Stresses in Two- and Three-Dimensional Models |
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48 | (4) |
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2.7.1 Measurement of Two-Dimensional Residual Stresses Induced in the Butt-Welded Joint of a Plate |
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48 | (1) |
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2.7.2 Measurement of Three-Dimensional Residual Stresses Induced in Thick Plates |
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49 | (3) |
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2.8 Prediction of Welding Residual Stresses |
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52 | (3) |
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52 | (3) |
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3 Mechanical Simulation of Welding |
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3.1 Heat Flow and Temperature During Welding |
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55 | (24) |
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3.1.1 Heat Supply, Diffusion, and Dissipation |
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56 | (3) |
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3.1.2 Simple Heat Flow Model |
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59 | (4) |
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3.1.3 Differences in Material Properties |
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63 | (1) |
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3.1.4 Change of Material Properties with Temperature |
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64 | (5) |
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3.1.5 Characteristic Temperature and Length |
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69 | (5) |
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3.1.6 Simple Method for Solving the Heat Conduction Problem |
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74 | (5) |
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79 | (1) |
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3.2 Basic Concepts of Mechanical Problems in Welding |
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79 | (20) |
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3.2.1 Classification of Problems According to Dimensions |
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80 | (1) |
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3.2.2 Variables and Equations Used to Describe Mechanical Problems |
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81 | (3) |
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3.2.3 Deformation and Stress in the Three-Bar Model |
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84 | (3) |
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3.2.4 Stress-Strain Relation in Welding |
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87 | (7) |
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3.2.5 Thermal Visco-Elasto-Plastic Problem in Three-Bar Model |
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94 | (2) |
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96 | (1) |
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97 | (2) |
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4 The Finite Element Method |
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4.1 Finite Element Method as a Powerful Tool for a Variety of Problems |
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99 | (2) |
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4.2 Types of Problems and the Corresponding Basic Equations |
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101 | (2) |
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4.3 Basic Concepts of the Variational Principle |
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103 | (1) |
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4.4 How to Solve a Problem with More than One Element |
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104 | (4) |
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4.4.1 Equilibrium Equation of a Bar |
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104 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Equilibrium Equations of Two Bars |
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105 | (3) |
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4.5 Incremental Method for Nonlinear Problems |
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108 | (1) |
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4.6 Simple Examples of Analyzing Thermal Elastic-Plastic-Creep Behavior |
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109 | (6) |
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4.6.1 Bar Fixed at Both Ends Under a Thermal Cycle |
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109 | (3) |
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4.6.2 Thermal Elastic Behavior of a Bar Fixed at Both Ends |
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112 | (1) |
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4.6.3 Thermal Elastic-Plastic Behavior of a Bar Fixed at Both Ends |
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113 | (1) |
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4.6.4 Thermal Elastic-Plastic Creep Behavior of a Bar Fixed at Both Ends |
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114 | (1) |
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4.7 Basic Theoretical Solutions to Validate Results Obtained by the FEM |
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115 | (7) |
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4.7.1 Temperature Distribution Due to a Concentrated Heat Source |
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115 | (1) |
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4.7.2 Temperature Distribution on a Butt-Welded Joint of a Thin Plate |
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116 | (3) |
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4.7.3 Temperature Distribution on a Butt-Welded Joint of a Thick Plate |
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119 | (1) |
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4.7.4 Inherent Strain Distribution on a Butt-Welded Joint of a Thin Plate |
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120 | (2) |
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4.8 Flow of Analysis for Welding Deformation and Residual Stress |
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122 | (2) |
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4.9 Checklist for Rational Simulation |
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124 | (2) |
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4.9.1 Checklist for Preparation of Input Data |
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124 | (1) |
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4.9.2 Checklists for the Results of Simulation |
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125 | (1) |
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4.10 Troubleshooting for Problems Experienced in Computation |
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126 | (5) |
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4.10.1 Troubleshooting for Common Problems in Heat Conduction Analysis and Stress Analysis |
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126 | (1) |
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4.10.2 Troubleshooting for Heat Conduction Analysis |
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126 | (2) |
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4.10.3 Troubleshooting for Thermal Elastic-Plastic Analysis |
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128 | (1) |
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129 | (2) |
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5.1 Q&A for Program Introduction |
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131 | (4) |
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5.2 Q&A for Welding Heat Conduction Program heat2d.exe |
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135 | (5) |
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5.3 Q&A for Thermal Elastic-Plastic Creep Program tepc2d.exe |
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140 | (2) |
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5.4 Q&A for the Inherent Strain-Based Program inhs2d.exe |
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142 | (2) |
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5.5 Q&A for Postprocessing Program awsd.exe |
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144 | (8) |
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152 | (18) |
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167 | (3) |
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6 Simulation Procedures for Welding Heat Conduction, Welding Deformation, and Residual Stresses Using the FEM Programs Provided on the Companion Website |
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6.1 Simulation Steps Using the Welding Heat Conduction FEM Program |
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170 | (8) |
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6.1.1 Purpose and Simulation Conditions |
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170 | (1) |
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6.1.2 Preparation of Input File |
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171 | (5) |
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6.1.3 Steps to Execute heat2d.exe for Welding Heat Conduction |
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176 | (1) |
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6.1.4 Viewing Results Using Postprocessing Program |
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176 | (2) |
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6.2 Simulation Steps Using the Thermal Elastic-Plastic Creep FEM Program |
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178 | (10) |
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6.2.1 Purpose and Simulation Conditions |
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178 | (1) |
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6.2.2 Preparation of Input File |
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179 | (6) |
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6.2.3 Prepare the Node Temperature File |
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185 | (1) |
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6.2.4 Steps to Execute the FEM Program |
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185 | (1) |
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6.2.5 Viewing Results Using the Postprocessing Program |
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185 | (3) |
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6.3 Simulation Steps Using the Inherent Strain FEM Program |
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188 | (5) |
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6.3.1 Purpose and Simulation Conditions |
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188 | (1) |
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6.3.2 Preparation of Input File |
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189 | (3) |
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6.3.3 Steps to Execute the Program |
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192 | (1) |
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6.3.4 Comparison of the Results of the Inherent Strain Method and the Thermal Elastic-Plastic Method |
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192 | (1) |
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6.4 Numerical Experiment for Residual Stress Measurement Using the Inherent Strain FEM Program |
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193 | (7) |
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6.4.1 Purpose and Simulation Conditions |
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193 | (1) |
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6.4.2 Preparation of Input File |
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194 | (5) |
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6.4.3 Steps to Execute the FEM Program for Residual Stress and Deformation |
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199 | (1) |
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6.4.4 Comparison of the Results of the Inherent Strain Method and the Thermal Elastic-Plastic Method |
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199 | (1) |
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6.5 Computation Steps for the Prediction of Residual Stresses by the Inherent Strain Method |
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200 | (10) |
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6.5.1 Purpose and Simulation Conditions |
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200 | (1) |
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6.5.2 Preparation of Input File and Prediction Formula of Inherent Strain |
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200 | (6) |
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6.5.3 Steps to Execute inhs2d.exe for Residual Stress Computation |
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206 | (1) |
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6.5.4 Comparison of the Results by the Inherent Strain Method and the Thermal Elastic-Plastic Method |
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206 | (1) |
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207 | (3) |
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7 Strategic Simulation Analyses for Manufacturing Problems Related to Welding |
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7.1 Cold Cracking at the First Pass of a Butt-Welded Joint Under Mechanical Restraint |
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210 | (3) |
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7.2 Cold Cracking of Slit Weld |
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213 | (3) |
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7.3 Analysis of Welding Residual Stress of Fillet Welds for Prevention of Fatigue Cracks |
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216 | (5) |
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7.3.1 Residual Stresses by Three-Dimensional Analysis |
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216 | (1) |
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7.3.2 Comparison of Residual Stresses by Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional Analyses |
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216 | (3) |
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7.3.3 Comparison of Residual Stresses in Single-Pass and Multipass Welds |
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219 | (2) |
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7.4 Multipass-Welded Corner Joints and Weld Cracking |
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221 | (6) |
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7.4.1 Experiment and Result |
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221 | (1) |
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7.4.2 Residual Stresses by Thermal Elastic-Plastic Analysis |
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221 | (2) |
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7.4.3 Effects of Welding Residual Stress and Geometry of Edge Preparation on Initiation of Welding Cracks |
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223 | (4) |
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7.5 Analysis of Transient and Residual Stresses of Multipass Welding of Thick Plates in Relation to Cold Cracks, Under-Bead Cracks, Etc |
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227 | (4) |
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7.5.1 Specimens and Conditions for Theoretical Analysis |
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227 | (3) |
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7.5.2 Characteristics of Welding Residual Stress Distributions and Production Process |
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230 | (1) |
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7.6 Improvement of Residual Stresses of a Circumferential Joint of a Pipe by Heat-Sink Welding |
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231 | (4) |
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7.7 Prediction of Deformation Produced by Line Heating |
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235 | (1) |
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7.8 Simulation of Resistance Spot Welding Process |
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236 | (3) |
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7.9 Prediction of Welding Distortion Produced in Large Plate Structures |
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239 | (8) |
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244 | (3) |
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Appendix A Residual Stress Distributions in Typical Welded Joints |
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247 | (36) |
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A.1 Residual Stresses in Base Metals |
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248 | (5) |
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A.1.1 Residual Stress in Thermo-Mechanical Control Process (TMCP) Steel |
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248 | (2) |
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A.1.2 Residual Stress in TMCP Steel Induced by Bead Weld |
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250 | (1) |
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A.1.3 Explosive Clad Steel |
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251 | (1) |
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A.1.4 Cylindrical Thick Plate by Cold Bending |
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252 | (1) |
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A.2 Residual Stresses in Welded Joints of Plates; in 2-Dimensional |
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253 | (10) |
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A.2.1 Butt-Welded Joints; Classification of Patterns of Residual Stress Distributions |
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253 | (3) |
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A.2.2 Long Butt-Welded Joint, Prediction Equation |
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256 | (1) |
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A.2.3 Built-Up Members of T Shape and I Shape |
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257 | (2) |
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A.2.4 Built-Up Member of T Shape, Experiment |
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259 | (1) |
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A.2.5 Residual Stress and Inherent Displacement Induced by Slit Welds |
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260 | (3) |
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A.3 Mulltipass Butt Welds of Thick Plates; 3-Dimensional |
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263 | (2) |
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A.3.1 Multipass Butt Welds of Thick Plates, Classification |
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263 | (1) |
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A.3.2 Multipass Butt Welds of Thick Plate, Experiment |
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264 | (1) |
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A.4 Electron Beam Welding, Thick Plate |
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265 | (2) |
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A.5 First Bead of Butt Joint; RCC (Rigidly Restrained Cracking) Test Specimen |
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267 | (1) |
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A.6 Multipass-Welded Corner Joint |
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268 | (1) |
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A.7 Fillet Welds: 3-Dimensional |
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269 | (2) |
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A.7.1 Single Fillet Welds |
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269 | (1) |
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A.7.2 Fillet Welds at the Joint of Web and Flange |
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270 | (1) |
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A.8 Repair Weld of Thick Plate |
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271 | (3) |
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A.9 Circumferential Welded Joint of Pipes |
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274 | (9) |
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A.9.1 Circumferential Welded Joint of Pipes--Heat-Sink Welding |
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274 | (5) |
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A.9.2 Penetrating Pipe Joints in Nuclear Reactor |
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279 | (2) |
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281 | (2) |
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Appendix B Published material properties for thermal elastic-plastic FEM analysis |
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Appendix C Theory of three-dimensional thermal elastic-plastic creep analysis |
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| Contents of Programs and Data on the Companion Website |
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283 | (2) |
| Index |
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285 | (6) |
| About the Authors |
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291 | |
