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Wind Farm Noise: Measurement, Assessment, and Control [Kõva köide]

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  • Formaat: Hardback, 624 pages, kõrgus x laius x paksus: 246x173x36 mm, kaal: 1089 g
  • Sari: Wiley Series in Acoustics Noise and Vibration
  • Ilmumisaeg: 31-Mar-2017
  • Kirjastus: John Wiley & Sons Inc
  • ISBN-10: 111882606X
  • ISBN-13: 9781118826065
Teised raamatud teemal:
Wind Farm Noise: Measurement, Assessment, and ControlSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: Hardback, 624 pages, kõrgus x laius x paksus: 246x173x36 mm, kaal: 1089 g
  • Sari: Wiley Series in Acoustics Noise and Vibration
  • Ilmumisaeg: 31-Mar-2017
  • Kirjastus: John Wiley & Sons Inc
  • ISBN-10: 111882606X
  • ISBN-13: 9781118826065
Teised raamatud teemal:
Püsilink: https://www.kriso.ee/db/9781118826065.html
Märksõnad:

Wind Farm Noise: Measurement, Assessment and Control 

Colin H Hansen, University of Adelaide, Australia

Con J Doolan, University of New South Wales, Australia

Kristy L Hansen, Flinders University, Australia

 

A comprehensive guide to wind farm noise prediction, measurement, assessment, control and effects on people

 

Wind Farm Noise covers all aspects associated with the generation, measurement, propagation, regulation and adverse health effects of noise produced by large horizontal-axis wind turbines of the type used in wind farms.

The book begins with a brief history of wind turbine development and the regulation of their noise at sensitive receivers. Also included is an introductory chapter on the fundamentals of acoustics relevant to wind turbine noise so that readers are well prepared for understanding later chapters on noise measurements, noise generation mechanisms, noise propagation modelling and the assessment of the noise at surrounding residences.

 

Key features:

• Potential adverse health effects of wind farm noise are discussed in an objective way.

• Means for calculating the noise at residences due to a wind farm prior to construction are covered in detail along with uncertainty estimates.

• The effects of meteorological conditions and other influences, such as obstacles, ground cover and atmospheric absorption, on noise levels at residences are explained.

• Quantities that should be measured as well as how to best measure them in order to properly characterise wind farm noise are discussed in detail.

• Noise generation mechanisms and possible means for their control are discussed as well as aspects of wind farm noise that still require further research to be properly understood.

 

The book provides comprehensive coverage of the topic, containing both introductory and advanced level material.

Wiley Series in Acoustics, Noise and Vibration xv
Preface xvii
1 Wind Energy and Noise 1(56)
1.1 Introduction
1(1)
1.2 Development of the Wind Energy Industry
2(11)
1.2.1 Early Development Prior to 2000
2(6)
1.2.2 Development since 2000
8(3)
1.2.3 Support Received by the Wind Industry
11(2)
1.3 History of Wind Turbine Noise Studies
13(5)
1.3.1 Modern Wind Turbine Sound Power Levels
16(2)
1.4 Current Wind Farm Noise Guidelines and Assessment Procedures
18(11)
1.4.1 ETSLI-R-97 (used mainly in the UK and Ireland)
18(7)
1.4.2 National Planning Policy Framework for England
25(1)
1.4.3 World Health Organisation Guidelines
25(2)
1.4.4 DEFRA Guidelines
27(1)
1.4.5 Noise Perception Index
28(1)
1.5 Wind Farm Noise Standards
29(3)
1.5.1 General Environmental Noise Standards
29(1)
1.5.2 IEC 61400-11
29(2)
1.5.3 NZS6808
31(1)
1.5.4 AS4959
31(1)
1.6 Regulations
32(11)
1.6.1 What Should be Included in a Wind Farm Noise Regulation
32(6)
1.6.2 Existing Noise Ordinances and Regulations
38(5)
1.7 Inquiries and Government Investigations
43(9)
1.7.1 Australia 2010-2014
43(5)
1.7.2 Canada
48(2)
1.7.3 Denmark 2013
50(1)
1.7.4 Northern Ireland 2013
51(1)
1.7.5 Scotland
51(1)
1.7.6 Wales
51(1)
1.8 Current Consensus on Wind Farm Noise
52(1)
References
52(5)
2 Fundamentals of Acoustics and Frequency Analysis 57(62)
2.1 Introduction
57(1)
2.2 Basic Acoustics Concepts
57(22)
2.2.1 Root Mean Square Sound Pressure
58(1)
2.2.2 Statistical Descriptors and Their Use
59(1)
2.2.3 Amplitude, Frequency, Wavelength, Wavenumber and Speed for Single-frequency Sound
60(2)
2.2.4 Units for Sound Pressure Measurement
62(1)
2.2.5 Sound Power
63(1)
2.2.6 Beating
64(2)
2.2.7 Amplitude Modulation and Amplitude Variation
66(3)
2.2.8 Decibel Addition
69(1)
2.2.9 Decibel Subtraction
70(1)
2.2.10 Noise Source Directivity
71(1)
2.2.11 Weighting Networks
71(2)
2.2.12 Noise Level Measures
73(3)
2.2.13 Sound in Rooms
76(3)
2.3 Basic Frequency Analysis
79(9)
2.3.1 Digital Filtering
82(1)
2.3.2 Octave Band and 1/3-Octave Band Analysis
83(1)
2.3.3 Octave and 1/3-Octave Filter Rise and Settling times
84(4)
2.4 Advanced Frequency Analysis
88(29)
2.4.1 Auto Power Spectrum and Power Spectral Density
91(4)
2.4.2 Linear Spectrum
95(1)
2.4.3 Leakage
95(1)
2.4.4 Windowing
96(7)
2.4.5 Sampling Frequency and Aliasing
103(1)
2.4.6 Overlap Processing
103(2)
2.4.7 Zero Padding
105(1)
2.4.8 Uncertainty Principle
105(1)
2.4.9 Time Synchronous Averaging and Synchronous Sampling
105(1)
2.4.10 Hilbert Transform
106(1)
2.4.11 Cross-spectrum
107(2)
2.4.12 Coherence
109(1)
2.4.13 Frequency-response (or Transfer) Function
110(1)
2.4.14 Coherent Output Power
111(1)
2.4.15 Convolution
112(1)
2.4.16 Auto-correlation and Cross-correlation Functions
113(2)
2.4.17 Maximum Length Sequence
115(2)
2.5 Summary
117(1)
References
117(2)
3 Noise Generation 119(38)
3.1 Introduction
119(3)
3.1.1 Definitions
120(2)
3.2 Aeroacoustics
122(6)
3.2.1 Turbulence and Sound
122(2)
3.2.2 The Effect of Solid Surfaces
124(1)
3.2.3 The Effect of Moving Solid Surfaces
125(3)
3.3 Aerodynamic Noise Generation on Wind Turbines
128(20)
3.3.1 The Aerodynamic Environment of a Wind Turbine
128(3)
3.3.2 Trailing-edge Noise
131(7)
3.3.3 Separation-stall Noise
138(1)
3.3.4 Tip Noise
139(2)
3.3.5 Turbulence-Leading-edge Interaction Noise
141(3)
3.3.6 Wind-shear Noise
144(1)
3.3.7 Blade-Tower Interaction Noise
145(2)
3.3.8 Thickness Noise
147(1)
3.4 Aero-elasticity and Noise
148(1)
3.5 Other Noise Sources
149(2)
3.6 Summary and Outlook
151(1)
References
152(5)
4 Wind Turbine Sound Power Estimation 157(23)
4.1 Introduction
157(1)
4.2 Aerodynamic Noise Prediction
157(1)
4.2.1 Types of Prediction Methods
157(1)
4.3 Simple Models
158(1)
4.4 Semi-empirical Methods (Class II Models)
159(9)
4.4.1 Overall Framework
159(1)
4.4.2 Aerodynamic Analysis
160(3)
4.4.3 Boundary-layer Estimates
163(1)
4.4.4 Airfoil Noise Models
164(2)
4.4.5 Inflow Noise Model
166(2)
4.4.6 Prediction of Total Sound Power
168(1)
4.5 Computational Methods (Class III Models)
168(1)
4.6 Estimations of Sound Power From Measurements
169(8)
4.6.1 Instrumentation
170(1)
4.6.2 Procedure
171(1)
4.6.3 Data Analysis
172(2)
4.6.4 Comments on Turbine Sound Power Measurements
174(1)
4.6.5 Possible Improvements to Procedures for Measuring Turbine Sound Power Levels
175(2)
4.7 Summary
177(1)
References
177(3)
5 Propagation of Noise and Vibration 180(109)
5.1 Introduction
180(2)
5.2 Principles Underpinning Noise Propagation Modelling
182(30)
5.2.1 Spherical Spreading Adiv
183(3)
5.2.2 Atmospheric Absorption, Aatm
186(1)
5.2.3 Ground Effect, Agr
187(1)
5.2.4 Meteorological Effects, Amet
188(21)
5.2.5 Barrier Effects, Abar
209(1)
5.2.6 Miscellaneous Propagation Effects, Amisc
209(1)
5.2.7 Infrasound and Low-frequency Noise
210(1)
5.2.8 Propagation Modelling Procedure
210(2)
5.3 Simplest Noise Propagation Models
212(1)
5.4 Danish Low-frequency Propagation Model
213(1)
5.5 CONCAWE (1981)
214(9)
5.5.1 Spherical Spreading K1
214(1)
5.5.2 Atmospheric Absorption, K2
214(1)
5.5.3 Ground Effects, K3
215(1)
5.5.4 Meteorological Effects, K4
215(3)
5.5.5 Source-height Effects, K5
218(1)
5.5.6 Barrier Attenuation, K6
218(3)
5.5.7 In-plant Screening, K7
221(1)
5.5.8 Vegetation Screening Kv
221(1)
5.5.9 Limitations of the CONCAWE Model
221(2)
5.6 ISO9613-2 (1996) Noise Propagation Model
223(8)
5.6.1 Ground Effects, Agr
224(1)
5.6.2 Barrier Attenuation, Abar
225(2)
5.6.3 Vegetation Screening Af
227(1)
5.6.4 Effect of Reflections other than Ground Reflections
228(1)
5.6.5 Recommended Adjustments to the ISO9613-2 Model for Wind Farm Noise
228(2)
5.6.6 Limitations of the ISO9613-2 Model
230(1)
5.7 NMPB-2008 Noise Propagation Model
231(11)
5.7.1 Ground, Barrier and Terrain Excess Attenuation, Agr+bar
232(9)
5.7.2 Reflections from Vertical Surfaces
241(1)
5.7.3 Limitations of the NMPB-2008 Model
242(1)
5.8 Nord2000 Noise Propagation Model
242(18)
5.8.1 Combination of Sound Rays from the Same Source Arriving at the Receiver via Different Paths
244(5)
5.8.2 Ground, Barrier and Terrain Excess Attenuation, Agr+bar
249(3)
5.8.3 Multiple Ground Reflections
252(3)
5.8.4 Excess Attenuation, Asc, due to a Ray Travelling Through a Scattering Zone
255(1)
5.8.5 Excess Attenuation, Ar, due to Reflection from a Facade or Building
256(3)
5.8.6 Limitations of the Nord2000 model
259(1)
5.9 Harmonoise (2002) Noise Propagation Engineering Model
260(9)
5.9.1 Combination of Sound Rays from the Same Source Arriving at the Receiver via Different Paths (for Calculating Agr+bar)
263(1)
5.9.2 Coordinate Transformation for the Ground Profile
264(2)
5.9.3 Ground, Barrier and Terrain Excess Attenuation, Agr+bar
266(1)
5.9.4 Excess Attenuation due to Scattering
266(1)
5.9.5 Excess Attenuation, Ar, due to Reflection from a Facade or Building
267(1)
5.9.6 Limitations of the Harmonoise Model
268(1)
5.10 Required Input Data for the Various Propagation Models
269(3)
5.10.1 CONCAWE
269(1)
5.10.2 1509613-2
269(1)
5.10.3 NMPB-2008
270(1)
5.10.4 Nord2000
271(1)
5.10.5 Harmonoise
271(1)
5.11 Offshore Wind Farm Propagation Models
272(1)
5.12 Propagation Model Prediction Uncertainty
272(4)
5.13 Outside versus Inside Noise at Residences
276(4)
5.14 Vibration Propagation
280(3)
5.14.1 Vibration Generation
281(1)
5.14.2 Vibration Propagation
281(1)
5.14.3 Vibration Detection
282(1)
5.15 Summary
283(2)
References
285(4)
6 Measurement 289(147)
6.1 Introduction
289(1)
6.2 Measurement of Environmental Noise Near Wind Farms
290(103)
6.2.1 Instrumentation
291(9)
6.2.2 Effects of Wind
300(1)
6.2.3 Wind Screens for Microphones
301(6)
6.2.4 Microphone Height
307(1)
6.2.5 Ambient or Background Noise Assessment
307(7)
6.2.6 A- and C-weighted Levels
314(3)
6.2.7 Infrasound and Low frequency Noise
317(5)
6.2.8 Indoor Measurements
322(2)
6.2.9 Outdoor-to-indoor Noise Reduction
324(4)
6.2.10 Amplitude Modulation and Variation
328(21)
6.2.11 Psychoacoustic Descriptors
349(2)
6.2.12 Tonality
351(12)
6.2.13 Additional Turbine Noise Analysis Techniques
363(2)
6.2.14 Compliance Testing
365(21)
6.2.15 Beamforming for Source Localisation on Full-scale Wind Turbines
386(1)
6.2.16 Measurement Uncertainty
387(6)
6.3 Vibration
393(2)
6.3.1 Instrumentation
394(1)
6.3.2 Measurement
394(1)
6.3.3 Analysis
395(1)
6.4 Wind, Wind Shear and Turbulence
395(10)
6.4.1 Instrumentation
395(4)
6.4.2 Measurement
399(2)
6.4.3 Analysis
401(4)
6.5 Reporting on Noise, Vibration and Meteorological Conditions
405(3)
6.6 Wind Tunnel Testing
408(17)
6.6.1 Wind Tunnel Techniques
409(4)
6.6.2 Noise Measurements in Wind Tunnels
413(9)
6.6.3 Review of some Recent Measurements
422(3)
6.7 Conclusions
425(1)
References
425(11)
7 Effects of Wind Farm Noise and Vibration on People 436(40)
7.1 Introduction
436(5)
7.2 Annoyance and Adverse Health Effects
441(14)
7.2.1 Amplitude Modulation, Amplitude Variation and Beating
453(2)
7.3 Hearing Mechanism
455(10)
7.3.1 External Ear
455(1)
7.3.2 Middle Ear
455(2)
7.3.3 Inner Ear
457(2)
7.3.4 Frequency Response of the Human Ear
459(6)
7.4 Reproduction of Wind Farm Noise for Adverse Effects Studies
465(2)
7.5 Vibration Effects
467(1)
7.6 Nocebo Effect
467(1)
7.7 Summary and Conclusion
468(2)
References
470(6)
8 Wind Farm Noise Control 476(20)
8.1 Introduction
476(1)
8.2 Noise Control by Turbine Design Modification
477(10)
8.2.1 Optimisation of Blade Design
478(1)
8.2.2 Trailing-edge Treatments
479(2)
8.2.3 Blade-pitch Control
481(2)
8.2.4 Phase Control
483(2)
8.2.5 Control of Noise Resulting from Aeroacoustic Excitation of the Blades
485(1)
8.2.6 Control of Noise Resulting from Mechanical Excitation of the Gearbox, Blades and Tower
486(1)
8.3 Optimisation of Turbine Layout
487(1)
8.4 Options for Noise Control at the Residences
488(4)
8.4.1 Active Noise Control
488(4)
8.4.2 Masking
492(1)
8.5 Administrative Controls
492(1)
8.6 Summary
493(1)
References
493(3)
9 Recommendations for Future Research 496(11)
9.1 Introduction
496(1)
9.2 Further Investigation of the Effects of Wind Farm Noise on People
497(2)
9.3 Improvements to Regulations and Guidelines
499(5)
9.4 Propagation Model Improvements
504(1)
9.5 Identification and Amelioration of the Problem Noise Sources on Wind Turbines
504(2)
9.5.1 Identification of Noise Sources
504(1)
9.5.2 Amelioration of Noise Sources
505(1)
9.6 Reducing Low-frequency Noise Levels in Residences
506(1)
References
506(1)
A Basic Mathematics 507(2)
A.1 Introduction
507(1)
A.2 Logarithms
507(1)
A.3 Complex Numbers
508(1)
A.4 Exponential Function
508(1)
B The BPM model 509(7)
B.1 Boundary-layer Parameters
509(2)
B.2 Turbulent Trailing-edge Noise Model
511(2)
B.3 Blunt Trailing-edge Noise Model
513(2)
Reference
515(1)
C Ground Reflection Coefficient Calculations 516(10)
C.1 Introduction
516(1)
C.2 Flow Resistivity
517(1)
C.3 Characteristic Impedance
518(2)
C.4 Plane-wave Reflection Coefficient
520(1)
C.5 Spherical-wave Reflection Coefficient
521(3)
C.6 Incoherent Reflection Coefficient
524(1)
References
525(1)
D Calculation of Ray Path Distances and Propagation Times for the Nord2000 Model 526(8)
D.1 Introduction
526(1)
D.2 Equivalent Linear Atmospheric Vertical Sound-speed Profile
527(2)
D.3 Calculation of Ray Path Lengths and Propagation Times
529(3)
D.3.1 Direct Ray
529(2)
D.3.2 Reflected Ray
531(1)
References
532(2)
E Calculation of Terrain Parameters for the Nord2000 Sound Propagation Model 534(30)
E.1 Introduction
534(1)
E.2 Terrain Effects
534(5)
E.3 Approximating Terrain Profiles by Straight-line Segments
539(1)
E.4 Calculation of the Excess Attenuation due to the Ground Effect for Relatively Flat Terrain with no Diffraction Edges
540(1)
E.5 Calculation of the Excess Attenuation due to the Ground Effect for Relatively Flat Terrain with a Variable Impedance Surface and no Diffraction Edges
541(2)
E.6 Calculation of the Excess Attenuation due to the Ground Effect for Valley-shaped Terrain
543(1)
E.7 Identification of the Two Most Efficient Diffraction Edges
544(3)
E.8 Calculation of the Sound Pressure at the Receiver for each Diffracted Path in Hilly Terrain
547(9)
E.8.1 Diffraction over a Single Finite-impedance Wedge-shaped Screen
547(3)
E.8.2 Diffraction over a Finite-impedance Thick screen with Two Diffraction Edges
550(4)
E.8.3 Diffraction over Two Finite-impedance Wedges
554(2)
E.9 Calculation of the Combined Ground and Barrier Excess-attenuation Effects
556(7)
E.9.1 Terrain Involving a Single Diffraction Wedge
557(4)
E.9.2 Terrain involving a Double Diffraction Wedge
561(1)
E.9.3 Terrain involving Two Single Diffraction Wedges
561(2)
References
563(1)
F Calculation of Fresnel Zone Sizes and Weights 564(8)
F.1 Introduction
564(1)
F.2 Fresnel Zone for Reflection from Flat Ground
564(3)
F.3 Fresnel Weights for Reflection from a Concave or Transition Ground Segment
567(3)
F.4 Fresnel Weights for Reflection from a Convex Ground Segment
570(1)
Reference
571(1)
G Calculation of Diffraction and Ground Effects for the Harmonoise Model 572(16)
G.1 Introduction
572(2)
G.2 Diffraction Effect, ALD
574(3)
G.3 Ground Effect
577(7)
G.3.1 Concave Model
579(3)
G.3.2 Transition Model
582(2)
G.4 Fresnel Zone for Reflection from a Ground Segment
584(3)
References
587(1)
H Active Noise-control System Algorithms 588(5)
H.1 Introduction
588(1)
H.2 Single-input, Single-output (SISO) Weight Update Algorithm
588(2)
H.3 Multiple-input, Multiple-output Weight Update Algorithm
590(2)
References
592(1)
Index 593
Professor Colin Hansen has been consulting, researching and teaching in the field of noise and vibration for 40 years. He has authored or co-authored eleven books, edited two books, and contributed seven chapters to various other books. His current research is focused on the generation, assessment and control of wind farm noise, on which he has been working since 2010 and for which he has been funded by the Australian Research Council. He is an Honorary Fellow and past-president of the International Institute of Acoustics and Vibration, a Fellow of the Australian Acoustical Society and a Fellow of Engineers Australia. He was awarded the 2009 Rayleigh Medal by the British institute of Acoustics for outstanding contributions to acoustics, the 2013 A.G.M. Michell medal by Engineers Australia for outstanding service to the discipline of Mechanical Engineering and the 2014 Rossing Prize in Acoustics Education by the Acoustical Society of America.





AssociateProfessor Doolan has an Honours Degree in Mechanical Engineering and a PhD in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Queensland.  He has over 20 years experience in research and development, teaching and consulting, with over 150 technical publications.  His research interests focus upon compressible flow, which includes the area of aeroacoustics - the science of how fluid flow creates sound - with the aim to control noise from modern technologies such as aircraft, wind turbines and submarines.  Associate Professor Doolan has been involved for many years in the understanding and control of wind turbine noise, with funding from the Australian Research Council to perform aeroacoustic testing of scaled turbines in wind tunnels.





Dr Kristy Hansen completed an Honours Degree in Mechanical Engineering and a PhD in Aerodynamics/Fluid Mechanics at the University of Adelaide. She spent 3 years working on an Australian Research Council funded grant investigating the impact of wind farm noise on rural communities. This work involved collection of an extensive data set which resulted from simultaneous measurements of noise, vibration and meteorological data at rural locations near different wind farms. Results from the analysis of these data have been presented in a number of peer-reviewed journals and conference papers. She is continuing her research on wind farm noise as part of her current employment at Flinders University.