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E-raamat: Wind Farm Noise: Measurement, Assessment, and Control

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Kristy L. Hansen, Con J. Doolan, Colin H. Hansen

Formaat: EPUB+DRM
Sari: Wiley Series in Acoustics Noise and Vibration
Ilmumisaeg: 31-Jan-2017
Kirjastus: John Wiley & Sons Inc
Keel: eng
ISBN-13: 9781118826126

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Formaat: EPUB+DRM
Sari: Wiley Series in Acoustics Noise and Vibration
Ilmumisaeg: 31-Jan-2017
Kirjastus: John Wiley & Sons Inc
Keel: eng
ISBN-13: 9781118826126

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Wind Farm Noise: Measurement, Assessment and Control

Colin H Hansen, University of Adelaide, Australia

Con J Doolan, University of New South Wales, Australia

Kristy L Hansen, Flinders University, Australia

A comprehensive guide to wind farm noise prediction, measurement, assessment, control and effects on people

Wind Farm Noise covers all aspects associated with the generation, measurement, propagation, regulation and adverse health effects of noise produced by large horizontal-axis wind turbines of the type used in wind farms.

The book begins with a brief history of wind turbine development and the regulation of their noise at sensitive receivers. Also included is an introductory chapter on the fundamentals of acoustics relevant to wind turbine noise so that readers are well prepared for understanding later chapters on noise measurements, noise generation mechanisms, noise propagation modelling and the assessment of the noise at surrounding residences.

Key features:

• Potential adverse health effects of wind farm noise are discussed in an objective way.

• Means for calculating the noise at residences due to a wind farm prior to construction are covered in detail along with uncertainty estimates.

• The effects of meteorological conditions and other influences, such as obstacles, ground cover and atmospheric absorption, on noise levels at residences are explained.

• Quantities that should be measured as well as how to best measure them in order to properly characterise wind farm noise are discussed in detail.

• Noise generation mechanisms and possible means for their control are discussed as well as aspects of wind farm noise that still require further research to be properly understood.

The book provides comprehensive coverage of the topic, containing both introductory and advanced level material.

Wiley Series in Acoustics, Noise and Vibration

Preface

xvii

1 Wind Energy and Noise

(56)

1.1 Introduction

(1)

1.2 Development of the Wind Energy Industry

(11)

1.2.1 Early Development Prior to 2000

(6)

1.2.2 Development since 2000

(3)

1.2.3 Support Received by the Wind Industry

(2)

1.3 History of Wind Turbine Noise Studies

(5)

1.3.1 Modern Wind Turbine Sound Power Levels

(2)

1.4 Current Wind Farm Noise Guidelines and Assessment Procedures

(11)

1.4.1 ETSLI-R-97 (used mainly in the UK and Ireland)

(7)

1.4.2 National Planning Policy Framework for England

(1)

1.4.3 World Health Organisation Guidelines

(2)

1.4.4 DEFRA Guidelines

(1)

1.4.5 Noise Perception Index

(1)

1.5 Wind Farm Noise Standards

(3)

1.5.1 General Environmental Noise Standards

(1)

1.5.2 IEC 61400-11

(2)

1.5.3 NZS6808

(1)

1.5.4 AS4959

(1)

1.6 Regulations

(11)

1.6.1 What Should be Included in a Wind Farm Noise Regulation

(6)

1.6.2 Existing Noise Ordinances and Regulations

(5)

1.7 Inquiries and Government Investigations

(9)

1.7.1 Australia 2010-2014

(5)

1.7.2 Canada

(2)

1.7.3 Denmark 2013

(1)

1.7.4 Northern Ireland 2013

(1)

1.7.5 Scotland

(1)

1.7.6 Wales

(1)

1.8 Current Consensus on Wind Farm Noise

(1)

References

(5)

2 Fundamentals of Acoustics and Frequency Analysis

(62)

2.1 Introduction

(1)

2.2 Basic Acoustics Concepts

(22)

2.2.1 Root Mean Square Sound Pressure

(1)

2.2.2 Statistical Descriptors and Their Use

(1)

2.2.3 Amplitude, Frequency, Wavelength, Wavenumber and Speed for Single-frequency Sound

(2)

2.2.4 Units for Sound Pressure Measurement

(1)

2.2.5 Sound Power

(1)

2.2.6 Beating

(2)

2.2.7 Amplitude Modulation and Amplitude Variation

(3)

2.2.8 Decibel Addition

(1)

2.2.9 Decibel Subtraction

(1)

2.2.10 Noise Source Directivity

(1)

2.2.11 Weighting Networks

(2)

2.2.12 Noise Level Measures

(3)

2.2.13 Sound in Rooms

(3)

2.3 Basic Frequency Analysis

(9)

2.3.1 Digital Filtering

(1)

2.3.2 Octave Band and 1/3-Octave Band Analysis

(1)

2.3.3 Octave and 1/3-Octave Filter Rise and Settling times

(4)

2.4 Advanced Frequency Analysis

(29)

2.4.1 Auto Power Spectrum and Power Spectral Density

(4)

2.4.2 Linear Spectrum

(1)

2.4.3 Leakage

(1)

2.4.4 Windowing

(7)

2.4.5 Sampling Frequency and Aliasing

103

(1)

2.4.6 Overlap Processing

103

(2)

2.4.7 Zero Padding

105

(1)

2.4.8 Uncertainty Principle

105

(1)

2.4.9 Time Synchronous Averaging and Synchronous Sampling

105

(1)

2.4.10 Hilbert Transform

106

(1)

2.4.11 Cross-spectrum

107

(2)

2.4.12 Coherence

109

(1)

2.4.13 Frequency-response (or Transfer) Function

110

(1)

2.4.14 Coherent Output Power

111

(1)

2.4.15 Convolution

112

(1)

2.4.16 Auto-correlation and Cross-correlation Functions

113

(2)

2.4.17 Maximum Length Sequence

115

(2)

2.5 Summary

117

(1)

References

117

(2)

3 Noise Generation

119

(38)

3.1 Introduction

119

(3)

3.1.1 Definitions

120

(2)

3.2 Aeroacoustics

122

(6)

3.2.1 Turbulence and Sound

122

(2)

3.2.2 The Effect of Solid Surfaces

124

(1)

3.2.3 The Effect of Moving Solid Surfaces

125

(3)

3.3 Aerodynamic Noise Generation on Wind Turbines

128

(20)

3.3.1 The Aerodynamic Environment of a Wind Turbine

128

(3)

3.3.2 Trailing-edge Noise

131

(7)

3.3.3 Separation-stall Noise

138

(1)

3.3.4 Tip Noise

139

(2)

3.3.5 Turbulence-Leading-edge Interaction Noise

141

(3)

3.3.6 Wind-shear Noise

144

(1)

3.3.7 Blade-Tower Interaction Noise

145

(2)

3.3.8 Thickness Noise

147

(1)

3.4 Aero-elasticity and Noise

148

(1)

3.5 Other Noise Sources

149

(2)

3.6 Summary and Outlook

151

(1)

References

152

(5)

4 Wind Turbine Sound Power Estimation

157

(23)

4.1 Introduction

157

(1)

4.2 Aerodynamic Noise Prediction

157

(1)

4.2.1 Types of Prediction Methods

157

(1)

4.3 Simple Models

158

(1)

4.4 Semi-empirical Methods (Class II Models)

159

(9)

4.4.1 Overall Framework

159

(1)

4.4.2 Aerodynamic Analysis

160

(3)

4.4.3 Boundary-layer Estimates

163

(1)

4.4.4 Airfoil Noise Models

164

(2)

4.4.5 Inflow Noise Model

166

(2)

4.4.6 Prediction of Total Sound Power

168

(1)

4.5 Computational Methods (Class III Models)

168

(1)

4.6 Estimations of Sound Power From Measurements

169

(8)

4.6.1 Instrumentation

170

(1)

4.6.2 Procedure

171

(1)

4.6.3 Data Analysis

172

(2)

4.6.4 Comments on Turbine Sound Power Measurements

174

(1)

4.6.5 Possible Improvements to Procedures for Measuring Turbine Sound Power Levels

175

(2)

4.7 Summary

177

(1)

References

177

(3)

5 Propagation of Noise and Vibration

180

(109)

5.1 Introduction

180

(2)

5.2 Principles Underpinning Noise Propagation Modelling

182

(30)

5.2.1 Spherical Spreading Adiv

183

(3)

5.2.2 Atmospheric Absorption, Aatm

186

(1)

5.2.3 Ground Effect, Agr

187

(1)

5.2.4 Meteorological Effects, Amet

188

(21)

5.2.5 Barrier Effects, Abar

209

(1)

5.2.6 Miscellaneous Propagation Effects, Amisc

209

(1)

5.2.7 Infrasound and Low-frequency Noise

210

(1)

5.2.8 Propagation Modelling Procedure

210

(2)

5.3 Simplest Noise Propagation Models

212

(1)

5.4 Danish Low-frequency Propagation Model

213

(1)

5.5 CONCAWE (1981)

214

(9)

5.5.1 Spherical Spreading K1

214

(1)

5.5.2 Atmospheric Absorption, K2

214

(1)

5.5.3 Ground Effects, K3

215

(1)

5.5.4 Meteorological Effects, K4

215

(3)

5.5.5 Source-height Effects, K5

218

(1)

5.5.6 Barrier Attenuation, K6

218

(3)

5.5.7 In-plant Screening, K7

221

(1)

5.5.8 Vegetation Screening Kv

221

(1)

5.5.9 Limitations of the CONCAWE Model

221

(2)

5.6 ISO9613-2 (1996) Noise Propagation Model

223

(8)

5.6.1 Ground Effects, Agr

224

(1)

5.6.2 Barrier Attenuation, Abar

225

(2)

5.6.3 Vegetation Screening Af

227

(1)

5.6.4 Effect of Reflections other than Ground Reflections

228

(1)

5.6.5 Recommended Adjustments to the ISO9613-2 Model for Wind Farm Noise

228

(2)

5.6.6 Limitations of the ISO9613-2 Model

230

(1)

5.7 NMPB-2008 Noise Propagation Model

231

(11)

5.7.1 Ground, Barrier and Terrain Excess Attenuation, Agr+bar

232

(9)

5.7.2 Reflections from Vertical Surfaces

241

(1)

5.7.3 Limitations of the NMPB-2008 Model

242

(1)

5.8 Nord2000 Noise Propagation Model

242

(18)

5.8.1 Combination of Sound Rays from the Same Source Arriving at the Receiver via Different Paths

244

(5)

5.8.2 Ground, Barrier and Terrain Excess Attenuation, Agr+bar

249

(3)

5.8.3 Multiple Ground Reflections

252

(3)

5.8.4 Excess Attenuation, Asc, due to a Ray Travelling Through a Scattering Zone

255

(1)

5.8.5 Excess Attenuation, Ar, due to Reflection from a Facade or Building

256

(3)

5.8.6 Limitations of the Nord2000 model

259

(1)

5.9 Harmonoise (2002) Noise Propagation Engineering Model

260

(9)

5.9.1 Combination of Sound Rays from the Same Source Arriving at the Receiver via Different Paths (for Calculating Agr+bar)

263

(1)

5.9.2 Coordinate Transformation for the Ground Profile

264

(2)

5.9.3 Ground, Barrier and Terrain Excess Attenuation, Agr+bar

266

(1)

5.9.4 Excess Attenuation due to Scattering

266

(1)

5.9.5 Excess Attenuation, Ar, due to Reflection from a Facade or Building

267

(1)

5.9.6 Limitations of the Harmonoise Model

268

(1)

5.10 Required Input Data for the Various Propagation Models

269

(3)

5.10.1 CONCAWE

269

(1)

5.10.2 1509613-2

269

(1)

5.10.3 NMPB-2008

270

(1)

5.10.4 Nord2000

271

(1)

5.10.5 Harmonoise

271

(1)

5.11 Offshore Wind Farm Propagation Models

272

(1)

5.12 Propagation Model Prediction Uncertainty

272

(4)

5.13 Outside versus Inside Noise at Residences

276

(4)

5.14 Vibration Propagation

280

(3)

5.14.1 Vibration Generation

281

(1)

5.14.2 Vibration Propagation

281

(1)

5.14.3 Vibration Detection

282

(1)

5.15 Summary

283

(2)

References

285

(4)

6 Measurement

289

(147)

6.1 Introduction

289

(1)

6.2 Measurement of Environmental Noise Near Wind Farms

290

(103)

6.2.1 Instrumentation

291

(9)

6.2.2 Effects of Wind

300

(1)

6.2.3 Wind Screens for Microphones

301

(6)

6.2.4 Microphone Height

307

(1)

6.2.5 Ambient or Background Noise Assessment

307

(7)

6.2.6 A- and C-weighted Levels

314

(3)

6.2.7 Infrasound and Low frequency Noise

317

(5)

6.2.8 Indoor Measurements

322

(2)

6.2.9 Outdoor-to-indoor Noise Reduction

324

(4)

6.2.10 Amplitude Modulation and Variation

328

(21)

6.2.11 Psychoacoustic Descriptors

349

(2)

6.2.12 Tonality

351

(12)

6.2.13 Additional Turbine Noise Analysis Techniques

363

(2)

6.2.14 Compliance Testing

365

(21)

6.2.15 Beamforming for Source Localisation on Full-scale Wind Turbines

386

(1)

6.2.16 Measurement Uncertainty

387

(6)

6.3 Vibration

393

(2)

6.3.1 Instrumentation

394

(1)

6.3.2 Measurement

394

(1)

6.3.3 Analysis

395

(1)

6.4 Wind, Wind Shear and Turbulence

395

(10)

6.4.1 Instrumentation

395

(4)

6.4.2 Measurement

399

(2)

6.4.3 Analysis

401

(4)

6.5 Reporting on Noise, Vibration and Meteorological Conditions

405

(3)

6.6 Wind Tunnel Testing

408

(17)

6.6.1 Wind Tunnel Techniques

409

(4)

6.6.2 Noise Measurements in Wind Tunnels

413

(9)

6.6.3 Review of some Recent Measurements

422

(3)

6.7 Conclusions

425

(1)

References

425

(11)

7 Effects of Wind Farm Noise and Vibration on People

436

(40)

7.1 Introduction

436

(5)

7.2 Annoyance and Adverse Health Effects

441

(14)

7.2.1 Amplitude Modulation, Amplitude Variation and Beating

453

(2)

7.3 Hearing Mechanism

455

(10)

7.3.1 External Ear

455

(1)

7.3.2 Middle Ear

455

(2)

7.3.3 Inner Ear

457

(2)

7.3.4 Frequency Response of the Human Ear

459

(6)

7.4 Reproduction of Wind Farm Noise for Adverse Effects Studies

465

(2)

7.5 Vibration Effects

467

(1)

7.6 Nocebo Effect

467

(1)

7.7 Summary and Conclusion

468

(2)

References

470

(6)

8 Wind Farm Noise Control

476

(20)

8.1 Introduction

476

(1)

8.2 Noise Control by Turbine Design Modification

477

(10)

8.2.1 Optimisation of Blade Design

478

(1)

8.2.2 Trailing-edge Treatments

479

(2)

8.2.3 Blade-pitch Control

481

(2)

8.2.4 Phase Control

483

(2)

8.2.5 Control of Noise Resulting from Aeroacoustic Excitation of the Blades

485

(1)

8.2.6 Control of Noise Resulting from Mechanical Excitation of the Gearbox, Blades and Tower

486

(1)

8.3 Optimisation of Turbine Layout

487

(1)

8.4 Options for Noise Control at the Residences

488

(4)

8.4.1 Active Noise Control

488

(4)

8.4.2 Masking

492

(1)

8.5 Administrative Controls

492

(1)

8.6 Summary

493

(1)

References

493

(3)

9 Recommendations for Future Research

496

(11)

9.1 Introduction

496

(1)

9.2 Further Investigation of the Effects of Wind Farm Noise on People

497

(2)

9.3 Improvements to Regulations and Guidelines

499

(5)

9.4 Propagation Model Improvements

504

(1)

9.5 Identification and Amelioration of the Problem Noise Sources on Wind Turbines

504

(2)

9.5.1 Identification of Noise Sources

504

(1)

9.5.2 Amelioration of Noise Sources

505

(1)

9.6 Reducing Low-frequency Noise Levels in Residences

506

(1)

References

506

(1)

A Basic Mathematics

507

(2)

A.1 Introduction

507

(1)

A.2 Logarithms

507

(1)

A.3 Complex Numbers

508

(1)

A.4 Exponential Function

508

(1)

B The BPM model

509

(7)

B.1 Boundary-layer Parameters

509

(2)

B.2 Turbulent Trailing-edge Noise Model

511

(2)

B.3 Blunt Trailing-edge Noise Model

513

(2)

Reference

515

(1)

C Ground Reflection Coefficient Calculations

516

(10)

C.1 Introduction

516

(1)

C.2 Flow Resistivity

517

(1)

C.3 Characteristic Impedance

518

(2)

C.4 Plane-wave Reflection Coefficient

520

(1)

C.5 Spherical-wave Reflection Coefficient

521

(3)

C.6 Incoherent Reflection Coefficient

524

(1)

References

525

(1)

D Calculation of Ray Path Distances and Propagation Times for the Nord2000 Model

526

(8)

D.1 Introduction

526

(1)

D.2 Equivalent Linear Atmospheric Vertical Sound-speed Profile

527

(2)

D.3 Calculation of Ray Path Lengths and Propagation Times

529

(3)

D.3.1 Direct Ray

529

(2)

D.3.2 Reflected Ray

531

(1)

References

532

(2)

E Calculation of Terrain Parameters for the Nord2000 Sound Propagation Model

534

(30)

E.1 Introduction

534

(1)

E.2 Terrain Effects

534

(5)

E.3 Approximating Terrain Profiles by Straight-line Segments

539

(1)

E.4 Calculation of the Excess Attenuation due to the Ground Effect for Relatively Flat Terrain with no Diffraction Edges

540

(1)

E.5 Calculation of the Excess Attenuation due to the Ground Effect for Relatively Flat Terrain with a Variable Impedance Surface and no Diffraction Edges

541

(2)

E.6 Calculation of the Excess Attenuation due to the Ground Effect for Valley-shaped Terrain

543

(1)

E.7 Identification of the Two Most Efficient Diffraction Edges

544

(3)

E.8 Calculation of the Sound Pressure at the Receiver for each Diffracted Path in Hilly Terrain

547

(9)

E.8.1 Diffraction over a Single Finite-impedance Wedge-shaped Screen

547

(3)

E.8.2 Diffraction over a Finite-impedance Thick screen with Two Diffraction Edges

550

(4)

E.8.3 Diffraction over Two Finite-impedance Wedges

554

(2)

E.9 Calculation of the Combined Ground and Barrier Excess-attenuation Effects

556

(7)

E.9.1 Terrain Involving a Single Diffraction Wedge

557

(4)

E.9.2 Terrain involving a Double Diffraction Wedge

561

(1)

E.9.3 Terrain involving Two Single Diffraction Wedges

561

(2)

References

563

(1)

F Calculation of Fresnel Zone Sizes and Weights

564

(8)

F.1 Introduction

564

(1)

F.2 Fresnel Zone for Reflection from Flat Ground

564

(3)

F.3 Fresnel Weights for Reflection from a Concave or Transition Ground Segment

567

(3)

F.4 Fresnel Weights for Reflection from a Convex Ground Segment

570

(1)

Reference

571

(1)

G Calculation of Diffraction and Ground Effects for the Harmonoise Model

572

(16)

G.1 Introduction

572

(2)

G.2 Diffraction Effect, ALD

574

(3)

G.3 Ground Effect

577

(7)

G.3.1 Concave Model

579

(3)

G.3.2 Transition Model

582

(2)

G.4 Fresnel Zone for Reflection from a Ground Segment

584

(3)

References

587

(1)

H Active Noise-control System Algorithms

588

(5)

H.1 Introduction

588

(1)

H.2 Single-input, Single-output (SISO) Weight Update Algorithm

588

(2)

H.3 Multiple-input, Multiple-output Weight Update Algorithm

590

(2)

References

592

(1)

Index

593

Professor Colin Hansen has been consulting, researching and teaching in the field of noise and vibration for 40 years. He has authored or co-authored eleven books, edited two books, and contributed seven chapters to various other books. His current research is focused on the generation, assessment and control of wind farm noise, on which he has been working since 2010 and for which he has been funded by the Australian Research Council. He is an Honorary Fellow and past-president of the International Institute of Acoustics and Vibration, a Fellow of the Australian Acoustical Society and a Fellow of Engineers Australia. He was awarded the 2009 Rayleigh Medal by the British institute of Acoustics for outstanding contributions to acoustics, the 2013 A.G.M. Michell medal by Engineers Australia for outstanding service to the discipline of Mechanical Engineering and the 2014 Rossing Prize in Acoustics Education by the Acoustical Society of America.

AssociateProfessor Doolan has an Honours Degree in Mechanical Engineering and a PhD in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Queensland. He has over 20 years experience in research and development, teaching and consulting, with over 150 technical publications. His research interests focus upon compressible flow, which includes the area of aeroacoustics - the science of how fluid flow creates sound - with the aim to control noise from modern technologies such as aircraft, wind turbines and submarines. Associate Professor Doolan has been involved for many years in the understanding and control of wind turbine noise, with funding from the Australian Research Council to perform aeroacoustic testing of scaled turbines in wind tunnels.

Dr Kristy Hansen completed an Honours Degree in Mechanical Engineering and a PhD in Aerodynamics/Fluid Mechanics at the University of Adelaide. She spent 3 years working on an Australian Research Council funded grant investigating the impact of wind farm noise on rural communities. This work involved collection of an extensive data set which resulted from simultaneous measurements of noise, vibration and meteorological data at rural locations near different wind farms. Results from the analysis of these data have been presented in a number of peer-reviewed journals and conference papers. She is continuing her research on wind farm noise as part of her current employment at Flinders University.

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