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E-book: Geologic Disposal of Low- and Intermediate-Level Radioactive Waste

(University of Tokyo, Japan), (McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada), (Lulea University of Technology, Sweden)
  • Format: 344 pages
  • Pub. Date: 07-Apr-2017
  • Publisher: CRC Press Inc
  • ISBN-13: 9781498767972
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Geologic Disposal of Low- and Intermediate-Level Radioactive WasteLarger Image
  • Format: 344 pages
  • Pub. Date: 07-Apr-2017
  • Publisher: CRC Press Inc
  • ISBN-13: 9781498767972
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This book will address concepts and techniques for preparation and disposal of low- (LLW) and intermediate-level (ILW) radioactive waste from the nuclear industry, the weapons industry, university labs, research institutes, and from the commercial industry. It will aid decision-makers in finding optimal technical/economical solutions, including how site investigations, design, construction, identification and selection of construction materials (clay and concrete), and monitoring can be made. It will also examine techniques for isolating soil and rock contaminated by leaking nuclear plants and from damaged nuclear reactors such as those at the Fukushima and Chernobyl nuclear plants.

Reviews

"Geologic Disposal of Low- and Intermediate-Level Radioactive Waste is very valuable. IAEA published the technical reports on disposal of Low-and Intermediate-Level radioactive waste. But this book is obviously more instructive for the studies of disposal and safety management of radioactive wastes generated form NPPs. It would also ensure the confidence of publics respecting to the safety operation of reactors." Xiaodong Liu, East China University of Technology, Shanghai, China

"I believe that this book will be a new chart for the future radioactive disposal management." Masashi Kamon, Research Institute for Environmental Geotechnics, Japan

"Many works on radioactive waste management focus on specialist details. Geologic Disposal of Low- and Intermediate-Level Radioactive Waste provides the fuller picture. This book takes radioactive waste management from the sphere of the researcher to reality in the field." Stephan Jefferis, Environmental Geotechnics Ltd., Oxford, United Kingdom

"I was favorably impressed by the thoroughness, recommendations, and case history illustrations of discussed topics; i.e., site investigation, design schemes, construction considerations, and monitoring for LLW and ILW disposal both above and underground in soil or rock. The book is a valuable, understandable source for engineers dealing with the design of economical solutions to the disposal of nuclear wastes." Frank C. Townsend, University of Florida, USA

"This is a valuable reference for practitioners and researchers involved in the design of safe, long-term disposal of low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste. In addition, the books clear and comprehensive approach allows for seamless integration of the material in graduate-level courses." Kristin M. Sample-Lord, Villanova University, Pennsylvania, USA

Preface xv
Authors xvii
Chapter 1 Radiation and Radioactive Wastes
1(8)
1.1 Introduction
1(1)
1.2 Is There a Problem?
1(1)
1.3 What Geological Media and Material Can Be Used for Isolating Waste?
2(2)
1.4 Role of Water and Air in the Dispersion of Radioactivity
4(5)
1.4.1 Categorization of Non-High-Level Radioactive Waste
4(1)
1.4.2 Liberation and Migration of Radionuclides
5(1)
1.4.3 Concepts for Storage of LLW and ILW
6(1)
1.4.3 Principles
6(1)
1.4.3 On-Ground Disposal
6(1)
1.4.3 Underground Disposal
7(1)
References
7(2)
Chapter 2 Radioactivity and Radiation Hazards
9(12)
2.1 Introduction
9(1)
2.2 Radiation Hazards
10(7)
2.2.1 Radioactivity
11(1)
2.2.2 Units of Measurements
12(1)
2.2.2.1 Radioactivity: Strength of Radioactive Source
13(1)
2.2.2.2 Energy of Ionization Radiation
13(1)
2.2.2.3 Radiation Dosage and Absorbed Dose
14(1)
2.2.3 Half-Life and Radioactivity
14(1)
2.2.4 Biological Effects
15(2)
2.3 Protection from Radioactive Materials
17(2)
2.3.1 Shielding, Containment, and Disposal
18(1)
2.4 Additional Remarks
19(1)
2.5 Conclusive Comments
20(1)
References
20(1)
Chapter 3 Low- and Intermediate-Level Radioactive Wastes
21(22)
3.1 Introduction
21(1)
3.2 Classification of Radioactive Wastes
21(11)
3.2.1 Classification Schemes
22(2)
3.2.2 Examples of Classification Schemes
24(7)
3.2.3 Sources of LLW and ILW
31(1)
3.3 Requirements for Disposal of LLW and ILW
32(2)
3.4 Requirements for Containment and Disposal of LLW and ILW
34(6)
3.4.1 Ground Contamination and Exposure
35(1)
3.4.2 Landfills
35(3)
3.4.3 Fugitive Radionuclides and Monitoring
38(2)
3.5 Additional Remarks
40(1)
3.6 Conclusive Comments
41(2)
References
41(2)
Chapter 4 Function of LLW and ILW Isolation
43(24)
4.1 Introduction
43(1)
4.2 Principles of Isolating Radioactive Waste On-Ground and Underground
43(12)
4.2.1 Radionuclide Transport in and from Repositories
43(2)
4.2.2 Mechanisms and Processes in Clay and Concrete That Are Basic to the Design and Construction of Repositories
45(1)
4.2.2 Clay Barriers
45(9)
4.2.2 Conclusive Remarks on the Performance of Clay Liners
54(1)
4.3 Concrete
55(1)
4.4 Release and Transport of Radionuclides
56(2)
4.4.1 Principles
56(1)
4.4.2 Migration of Radionuclides through Clay Barriers
56(1)
4.4.3 Nature of Soil Material
57(1)
4.4.3.1 Basics
57(1)
4.4.3.2 Role of Particle Surface Area
57(1)
4.5 Uptake of Solutes in Transport in Soils
58(6)
4.5.1 Mobility of Cationic Radionuclides
58(1)
4.5.2 Rate-Limiting Processes
59(2)
4.5.3 Determination of Partitioning and Partition Coefficients
61(1)
4.5.4 Clay Fractions and Uptake Capability
62(1)
4.5.5 Application of Uptake Information
63(1)
4.5.6 Remarks on Transport of Radionuclides
63(1)
4.6 Concluding Remarks
64(3)
References
64(3)
Chapter 5 Management Disposal Schemes
67(60)
5.1 Introduction
67(1)
5.2 Temporary Storage and Transport of LLW and ILW from Nuclear Plants to Repositories
67(1)
5.3 Permanent Disposal of LLW and ILW
68(2)
5.4 Near-Surface Disposal of LLW and ILW
70(7)
5.4.1 General
70(1)
5.4.2 Selection of Disposal Sites
71(1)
5.4.2.1 Socioeconomic Issues
71(1)
5.4.2.2 Environmental Issues
72(1)
5.4.3 Soil Underground
73(3)
5.4.4 Rock Underground
76(1)
5.5 Geologic Environment
77(2)
5.5.1 Salt and Argillaceous Rock
77(2)
5.6 Principles of On-Ground Disposal of LLW and ILW
79(4)
5.6.1 Soil Underground
79(1)
5.6.2 Groundwater Flow Paths
80(3)
5.7 Underground Disposal of LLW and ILW
83(30)
5.7.1 Selection of Disposal Sites
83(1)
5.7.2 Salt Rock
84(1)
5.7.3 Clastic Clay
85(3)
5.7.4 Argillaceous Rock
88(2)
5.7.5 Crystalline Rock
90(6)
5.7.6 Assessment and Comparison of Sites
96(1)
5.7.7 Flow through Crystalline Repository Rock
97(1)
5.7.8 Stripa Flow Model
98(1)
5.7.8.1 General
98(4)
5.7.8.2 Background of Calculation Work
102(1)
5.7.8.3 Calculation Principle
103(1)
5.7.8.4 Discrete Fracture Model
104(2)
5.7.8.5 Equivalent Continuum Model
106(1)
5.7.8.6 Integration of Entities in the 3D Model
107(1)
5.7.8.7 Influence of the EDZ on the Flow in the Near Field
107(1)
5.7.8.8 Physical Data
108(2)
5.7.8.9 Contamination of a Nearby Well
110(1)
5.7.9 Rock Stability Issues
111(2)
5.8 Disposal of LLW and ILW in Abandoned Mines
113(11)
5.8.1 General
113(1)
5.8.2 Rock Stability Conditions
114(1)
5.8.3 Rock Strength
115(1)
5.8.4 Stripa Case
115(1)
5.8.4.1 General
115(1)
5.8.4.2 Boundary Elements for Rock Mechanics
116(1)
5.8.4.3 Geometry
116(2)
5.8.4.4 Impact of EDZ
118(3)
5.8.4.5 Room and Pillar Mines
121(1)
5.8.4.6 Conclusions from Stability Calculations
122(2)
5.9 Conclusive Comments
124(3)
References
125(2)
Chapter 6 Design and Function of Repositories
127(88)
6.1 Introduction
127(1)
6.2 Principles for Design and Construction of On-Ground Repositories
127(1)
6.3 Preparation of Construction Sites
128(5)
6.3.1 Treatment of the Ground
128(1)
6.3.1.1 Basics
128(1)
6.3.1.2 Effective Long-Time Drainage of Surface Water
129(1)
6.3.1.3 Removal of Organic Topsoil with Vegetation
130(1)
6.3.2 Vaults for Hosting Waste
130(1)
6.3.3 Top Cover
131(1)
6.3.3.1 Capping of Vaults
131(1)
6.3.3.2 Erosion-Resistant Cover
132(1)
6.3.3.3 Geotextiles: Membranes and Films
133(1)
6.3.3.4 Thin Clay Isolation
133(1)
6.4 Design and Preparation of Long-Lasting Liners
133(1)
6.5 Design Principles and Criteria
134(2)
6.6 Function of Top Clay Liners as a Basis of Design
136(5)
6.6.1 Role of Clay Microstructure
136(2)
6.6.2 Function of Soil Microstructure
138(3)
6.7 Two Clay Liners in On-Ground Repositories
141(1)
6.8 Transport Mechanisms
142(28)
6.8.1 Infiltration and Percolation
142(2)
6.8.2 Processes in Cyclic Wetting and Drying
144(1)
6.8.2.1 Initial Impact of a Temperature Gradient
144(1)
6.8.2.2 Current Cyclic Wetting and Drying
145(5)
6.8.3 Mechanisms in Migration and Percolation of Clay Liners
150(1)
6.8.3.1 Migration-Controlling Factors
150(1)
6.8.3.2 Geotechnical Properties of Fully Water-Saturated Top Clay Liners
150(2)
6.8.3.3 Role of Smectite Content
152(2)
6.8.3.4 Migration of Rainwater and Meltwater into and through Clay
154(5)
6.8.3.5 Impact of Temperature and Temperature Gradients
159(1)
6.8.3.6 Role of Microstructural Changes
159(1)
6.8.3.7 Dispersion of Infiltrated Water
160(2)
6.8.3.8 Evaporation
162(2)
6.8.3.9 Transpiration
164(1)
6.8.3.10 Conclusive Summary of Cyclic Wetting and Drying
165(1)
6.8.3.11 Freezing and Thawing
166(2)
6.8.3.12 Gas Penetration of Clay Liners
168(2)
6.9 Function of the Bottom Clay Liner
170(9)
6.9.1 Microstructural Constitution
170(4)
6.9.2 Issue of Slope Stability of Clays
174(1)
6.9.2.1 Stress--Strain Mechanisms in Slopes
174(1)
6.9.2.2 Shear Strength
175(2)
6.9.2.3 Long-Term Shear Strength
177(2)
6.9.2.4 Liquefaction
179(1)
6.10 Special Cases: Ideal Conditions for On-Ground Disposal of LLW and ILW
179(9)
6.10.1 Options
179(1)
6.10.2 Deserts
179(1)
6.10.3 Clay Liners of Natural Smectite Soils in Arid Climate
180(1)
6.10.3.1 An Iraqi Case
180(1)
6.10.3.2 Clay Materials
181(2)
6.10.3.3 Compaction Characteristics
183(1)
6.10.3.4 Swelling Pressure and Hydraulic Conductivity
183(2)
6.10.3.5 Shear Strength
185(1)
6.10.3.6 Creep Behavior
185(2)
6.10.3.7 Comments on the Iraqi Case
187(1)
6.11 Design, Construction, and Performance of Underground Repositories for Disposal of LLW and ILW
188(18)
6.11.1 Site Investigations and Location
188(1)
6.11.2 Cases Considered
189(1)
6.11.2.1 Disposal in Crystalline Rock
189(1)
6.11.2.2 Disposal in Salt Rock
190(1)
6.11.2.3 Disposal in Argillaceous Rock
191(4)
6.11.2.4 Disposal in Clastic Clay
195(8)
6.11.3 Additional Concepts
203(1)
6.11.3.1 C.E.T. North Sea Concept
203(1)
6.11.3.2 Desert Concept
204(2)
6.12 Summary of Short-Term Performance of LLW and ILW Repositories
206(5)
6.12.1 On-Ground Disposal of LLW and ILW
206(1)
6.12.1.1 Prerequisite for Prediction
206(1)
6.12.1.2 Common Governing Equation
206(1)
6.12.1.3 Approximation of Water Distribution under Infiltration
207(1)
6.12.1.4 Progress of Wetting Front
208(1)
6.12.1.5 Time for Saturation or Leakage
208(1)
6.12.1.6 Calculation of Time for the Start and Continuation of Percolation
209(1)
6.12.1.7 Percolation Time
209(1)
6.12.2 Underground Disposal of LLW and ILW
210(1)
6.13 Concluding Remarks
211(4)
References
211(4)
Chapter 7 Construction of LLW and ILW Repositories
215(64)
7.1 Introduction
215(1)
7.2 Cases Considered
215(1)
7.3 Construction of LLW and ILW Repositories On-Ground
215(36)
7.3.1 Principles
215(1)
7.3.2 Preparation of Underlying Compressible Soil
216(1)
7.3.3 Construction
216(1)
7.3.3.1 Foundation Beds
216(2)
7.3.3.2 Sealing Components: Clay Liners and Fills
218(1)
7.3.4 Design, Placement, Construction, and Function of Clay Components
219(1)
7.3.4.1 Concepts
219(1)
7.3.4.2 Selection of Clay Material
219(1)
7.3.5 Case I: Liners of Friedland Clay in a Humic Climate
220(1)
7.3.5.1 Local Conditions
220(1)
7.3.5.2 Clay Material
220(1)
7.3.5.3 Design Basis
220(4)
7.3.5.4 Construction
224(1)
7.3.5.5 Quality Control
225(1)
7.3.5.6 Maturation and Function of Clay Liners
226(5)
7.3.5.7 Transfer of Radionuclides through the Bottom Liner of an LLW-Converted Hogbytorp Repository
231(1)
7.3.6 Case II: Lithuanian Clay Liners for a Repository in a Moderately Humid Climate
232(1)
7.3.6.1 General
232(1)
7.3.6.2 Waste to Be Stored
232(1)
7.3.6.3 Clay Material
233(8)
7.3.6.4 Performance Assessment: Prediction of Through-Flow Using Numerical Codes
241(1)
7.3.7 Case III: Iraqi Clay Liners for a Repository in Arid Climates
242(1)
7.3.7.1 Stability and Hydraulic Function
242(5)
7.3.7.2 Hydraulic Function
247(3)
7.3.8 Tentative Conclusions with Respect to On-Ground Disposal of LLW and ILW
250(1)
7.4 Construction of Underground LLW and ILW Repositories
251(16)
7.4.1 Selection of Site
251(1)
7.4.2 Principles of Design and Construction
251(1)
7.4.3 EDZ, the Most Important Issue
252(3)
7.4.4 Type and Placement of Clay Isolation
255(1)
7.4.4.1 General
255(1)
7.4.4.2 SFR Case
255(12)
7.5 Instrumentation and Monitoring
267(8)
7.5.1 Need or No Need?
267(1)
7.5.1.1 Introduction
267(2)
7.5.1.2 Management Zone and Monitoring Strategy
269(1)
7.5.1.3 Data Collection
270(1)
7.5.1.4 Alternatives
270(3)
7.5.2 What Shall Be Measured?
273(1)
7.5.3 Inspection Galleries
273(1)
7.5.4 A Real Problem
273(2)
7.6 Comparison of On-Ground and Underground Disposal of LLW and ILW
275(1)
7.7 Concluding Remarks
275(4)
References
275(4)
Chapter 8 Long-Term Function of LLW and ILW Repositories
279(32)
8.1 Introduction
279(1)
8.2 Degeneration of Concrete and Clay
280(13)
8.2.1 Chemical Reactions between Concrete and Clay
280(1)
8.2.2 Impact of Temperature on Concrete and Clay
281(1)
8.2.2.1 Concrete
281(1)
8.2.2.2 Clay
282(7)
8.2.2.3 Clay and Concrete in Contact
289(4)
8.3 On-Ground Repositories
293(2)
8.3.1 Stability of Concrete Constructions
293(1)
8.3.2 Performance and Stability of Erosion-Resistant Cover of Clay Slopes and Fills
294(1)
8.3.2.1 Rock Block Engineering Cover
294(1)
8.3.2.2 Vegetation Cover
294(1)
8.3.3 Performance and Stability of Clay Top Liners and Compacted Clay Fills
294(1)
8.4 Underground Repositories
295(6)
8.4.1 Rock Stability
295(1)
8.4.2 Stability of Underground Concrete Constructions
296(1)
8.4.3 Stability of Clay Seals
297(1)
8.4.3.1 pH
298(1)
8.4.3.2 Cation Exchange
299(1)
8.4.4 Comments on the Performance of Case Examples
299(2)
8.5 Next Ice Age
301(1)
8.6 External Impact on the Long-Term Function of LLW and ILW Repositories
302(3)
8.6.1 Events
302(1)
8.6.1.1 Seismicity
303(1)
8.6.1.2 Flooding
303(1)
8.6.1.3 Impact of Meteors, Meteoroids, and Bolides
304(1)
8.6.1.4 Unauthorized Intrusion, Sabotage, and Terrorism
304(1)
8.7 Pros and Cons for On-Ground and Underground Disposal of LLW and ILW
305(2)
8.8 Conclusive Comments
307(4)
References
308(3)
Chapter 9 Quality Assurance and Safety Assessment
311(10)
9.1 Introduction
311(1)
9.2 Definitions
311(1)
9.3 Quality Assurance
312(4)
9.3.1 Smectitic Clay
312(1)
9.3.1.1 Mineral Content
312(2)
9.3.1.2 Placement
314(2)
9.3.2 Cement and Concrete
316(1)
9.4 Safety Assessment
316(2)
9.4.1 Assessment Based on the Rate of Water Flow
316(2)
9.4.2 Assessment Based on the Rate of Transport of Radionuclides in the Environment
318(1)
9.5 Conclusive Comments
318(3)
References
318(3)
Index 321
Dr. Roland Pusch received his PhD in soil mechanics (KTH) and a PhD in geology (Stockholm University), and was appointed as chief engineer and head of the research division of the Swedish Geotechnical Institute from 1963 to 1967. He then served as an associate professor at Chalmers University of Technology, and as professor at the Technical University at Luleε. He is presently professor emeritus and engaged as adjunct professor at this university since 2012. He coordinated two EU projects "Microstructure and chemical parameters of bentonite as determinants of waste isolation efficiency" (1995-1998) and "Low Risk Disposal Technology" (2000-2003), and was associate coordinator of the EU project "Cluster Repository Project" (CROP), 2000-2003, summarizing the experience from national projects concerning disposal of HLW and long-lived species in LLW and MLW. He has authored five geoscientific books: Waste disposal in rock, Rock mechanics on a geological base both for Elsevier, Microstructure of smectite clays and engineering performance (together with R N Yong) for Taylor & Francis, Geological storage of radioactive waste for Springer, and High-level radioactive waste disposal for WIT Press. The latest was Bentonite Clay for Taylor & Francis, published in 2015. The total number published technical and scientific papers is about 200.

Dr. Masashi Nakano received a PhD in Agriculture from the University of Tokyo. He has been a Member of the Science Council of Japan, President of Japanese Society of Agricultural Engineering, and Chairman of Technical Advisory Committee on Environmental Remediation of Closed Uranium Mine (JAEA). He has won numerous awards for his work, including Science and Engineering Award, Japanese Society of Irrigation, Drainage and Reclamation, the Yomiuri Award, Japan Agriculture Science Union Award, Distinguished service medal from the Japanese Geotechnical Society, Distinguished paper award from the Clay Science Society of Japan. He is also a member emeritus of both Japanese Society of Irrigation, Drainage and Reclamation and the Japanese Geotechnical Society. He is Professor Emeritus, The University of Tokyo.

Raymond Yong (William Scott Professor Emeritus, McGill University), was trained both in the United States and Canada. He received his BA in Mathematics/Physics at Washington and Jefferson College, his BSc in Civil Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, his MSc in Material Sciences at Purdue University, and his MEng and PhD at McGill University. He has won many awards and prizes in the US and Canada. Amongst these is the KILLAM Prize, Canada's highest and most prestigious Scientific Prize. He has been conferred the title of "Chevalier de l'Ordre National du Quebec" by the government of Quebec, and is a Fellow the Royal Society of Canada [ FRS(C)]. Other significant awards include the Canadian Environmental Achievement certificate of Honour, awarded by the Canadian Government (Environment Canada); the LEGGET prize - which is the highest prize awarded by the Canadian Geotechical Society, and the ASTM DUDLEY prize.
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