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E-book: Quantitative MRI in Cancer

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Edited by (Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA), Edited by (Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA), Edited by (Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA)
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Propelling quantitative MRI techniques from bench to bedside, Quantitative MRI in Cancer presents a range of quantitative MRI methods for assessing tumor biology. It includes biophysical and theoretical explanations of the most relevant MRI techniques as well as examples of these techniques in cancer applications.

The introductory part of the book covers basic cancer biology, theoretical aspects of NMR/MRI physics, and the hardware required to form MR images. Forming the core of the book, the next three parts illustrate how to characterize tissue properties with endogenous and exogenous contrast mechanisms and discuss common image processing techniques relevant for cancer. The final part explores emerging areas of MR cancer characterization, including radiation therapy planning, cellular and molecular imaging, pH imaging, and hyperpolarized MR. Each of the post-introductory chapters describes the salient qualitative and quantitative aspects of the techniques before proceeding to preclinical and clinical applications. Each chapter also contains references for further study.

Leading the way toward more personalized medicine, this text brings together existing and emerging quantitative MRI techniques for assessing cancer. It provides a self-contained overview of the theoretical and experimental essentials and state of the art in cancer MRI.

Reviews

" this book fills a void in the literature in this area. The text is well written and in particular is well organized The text has abundant mathematic derivations and numerous figures and diagrams (including many pulse sequence diagrams) the text fulfills the goal of providing a one-volume overview of quantitative oncologic MR imaging. It is ideally suited to physician scientists and medical physicists working to advance research in the field and improve future clinical MR imaging applications." Michael Orsi, Radiology, July 2012

"This book presents a range of quantitative MRI methods for assessing tumor biology, including biophysical and theoretic explanation of the most relevant MRI techniques as well as examples of these techniques in cancer applications. I recommend this special book to trainees and radiologists using advanced MRI and to basic scientists and physician scientists using MRI." E. Edmund Kim, Journal of Nuclear Medicine, June 2012

" useful as an introductory text for imaging scientists and physicians who engage in quantitative cancer imaging methodologies with other modalities, such as nuclear medicine. the greatest strengths of this book are its breadth of subject matter, the uniformly large numbers of citations provided by the chapter authors and the detailed index." Geoffrey Clarke, Medical Physics, March 2012

Series Preface ix
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
About the Editors xv
Contributors xvii
PART I Physical Basis of Magnetic Resonance Imaging
1 The Biology and Imaging of Cancer
1.1 What Is Cancer?
3(4)
Types of Cancers
1.2 Cancer Progression
7(1)
Uncontrolled Cellular Growth
Angiogenesis
Invasion and Metastasis
1.3 Classification of Tumors
8(1)
Pathology
1.4 Cancer Imaging Modalities and Strategies
8(9)
Optical Imaging
Ultrasound
Radiography and CT
Nuclear Imaging (Scintigraphy, PET, and SPECT)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Molecular Imaging
Multimodal Imaging
Imaging and Therapy
Future Prospects for Developments in Cancer Imaging
References
12(5)
2 Physics of MRI
17(10)
Seth A. Smith
2.1 Background
17(1)
2.2 Description of Magnetization
17(3)
2.3 Rotating Reference Frame
20(1)
2.4 Definition of Magnetization
21(1)
2.5 Relaxation
21(3)
Longitudinal Relaxation: T1
Transverse Relaxation: T2
More on T2
2.6 Mathematical Formalism for Relaxation: Bloch Equations
24(1)
2.7 Formation of an Observable Quantity: Signal
24(1)
2.8 Final Thoughts: From Signal to Image
25(1)
2.9 Conclusion
26(1)
References
26(1)
3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Hardware and Data Acquisition
27(12)
E. Brian Welch
3.1 Magnets and Magnet Structures
28(3)
B0 Inhomogeneity Compensation
Siting and Magnetic Shielding
RF Shielding
3.2 Spectrometer
31(1)
3.3 Gradient System
31(1)
Eddy Currents
3.4 RF System
32(3)
Requirements for RF Systems
RF Transmitters (B1) Systems
Multitransmit Parallel
RF Transmission Technology
Sampling of Received Signals
RF Coils
Linear versus Quadrature Coils
Receive-Only Coils
Parallel Imaging
3.5 Safety and Security
35(1)
Static Magnetic Field
RF Burns from Current Loops
Specific Absorption Rate
Peripheral Nerve Stimulation
Acoustic Noise
Quenches
3.6 Summary
36(3)
References
37(2)
4 Image Formation
39(14)
David R. Pickens
4.1 Introduction
39(1)
4.2 Description of Image Formation
40(1)
4.3 Echoes
40(2)
RF Echoes
Gradient Echoes
4.4 Image Formation
42(2)
Slice Selection
Frequency Encoding
Phase Encoding
Extensions to Three Dimensions
4.5 K-Space and Pulse Sequences
44(3)
K-Space Description
Filling K-Space
4.6 Reconstruction
47(6)
Fourier Reconstruction
Parallel Imaging and Reconstruction
References
50(3)
PART II Characterizing Tissue Properties with Endogenous Contrast Mechanisms
5 Quantitative Measurement of T1, T2, T2*, and Proton Density
53(14)
Richard D. Dortch
Mark D. Does
5.1 Introduction
53(1)
5.2 NMR Relaxation in Cancerous Tissue
53(2)
Biophysical Basis of Relaxation Time Changes
Multiexponential Relaxation
Applications
5.3 Pulse Sequences and Signal Equations
55(1)
5.4 Spin-Spin Relaxation (T2)
56(3)
Spin Echo
Optimization of Acquisition Parameters
B0 and B1 Imperfection
Multiple Spin Echoes
Multiexponential T2
5.5 Effective Spin--Spin Relaxation (T2*)
59(2)
Spoiled Gradient Echo
Optimization of Acquisition Parameters
B0 and B1 Imperfection
5.6 Spin-Lattice Relaxation (T1)
61(2)
Saturation and Inversion Recovery
Variable Flip Angle Gradient Echo
Optimization of Acquisition Parameters
B0 and B1 Imperfection
5.7 Proton Spin Density (M0)
63(1)
5.8 Rician Noise
63(4)
References
63(4)
6 Arterial Spin Labeling Techniques
67(14)
Bruce M. Damon
Christopher P. Elder
6.1 Introduction
67(1)
6.2 Overview of ASL
67(1)
6.3 ASL Techniques
68(5)
Continuous ASL
Pulsed ASL
6.4 ASL Quantification
73(4)
Description of Quantitative ASL Models
Issues Affecting Quantification
Technically Based
Issues Affecting Quantification: Physiologically Based
6.5 ASL in Cancer Biology Studies
77(1)
Tumor Diagnosis and Characterization
Tumor Treatment
6.6 Summary
78(3)
References
78(3)
7 Diffusion-Weighted MRI
81(18)
Lori R. Arlinghaus
Thomas E. Yankeelov
7.1 Introduction
81(1)
7.2 Biological Basis of DW-MRI
81(1)
7.3 Diffusion-Weighted MRI
82(2)
7.4 Practical Considerations
84(6)
Diffusion Models
Choice of b Values
Anisotropic Diffusion
Image Acquisition
Methods
Fat Suppression
Image Analysis Methods
Timing
7.5 Applications
90(2)
Preclinical Applications
Clinical Applications
7.6 Future Directions
92(7)
Preclinical
Clinical
Acknowledgments
93(1)
References
93(6)
8 Magnetization Transfer and Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer Imaging in Cancer Imaging
99(8)
Daniel F. Gochberg
Martin Lepage
8.1 Magnetization Transfer
99(3)
Qualitative Description of MT
Quantitative Description of MT
Magnetization
Transfer versus Relaxation
MT in Cancer Imaging
8.2 Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer
102(2)
Qualitative Description of CEST
Quantitative Description of CEST
CEST in Cancer Imaging
8.3 Summary
104(3)
References
104(3)
9 MR Spectroscopy and Spectroscopic Imaging of Tumor Physiology and Metabolism
107(18)
Marie-France Penet
Dmitri Artemov
Noriko Mori
Zaver M. Bhujwalla
9.1 Introduction
107(1)
9.2 Qualitative Introduction to MRS Techniques
107(3)
9.3 Quantitative Introduction to MRS Techniques
110(2)
1H Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
31P MRS, 19F MRS, and 13C MRS
Quantification
9.4 Preclinical Applications in Cancer
112(3)
Choline Metabolism
pH Measurements
Hypoxia Reporters
Glycolysis
Drug
Delivery and Treatment Efficacy
Lipids and Apoptosis
Hyperpolarization, A New Research Area
9.5 Applications in Cancer Diagnosis
115(1)
Brain Cancer
Breast Cancer
Prostate Cancer
Other Cancers
9.6 Clinical Applications in Cancer Therapy
116(1)
Drug Delivery Visualization
Planning Treatment and Monitoring Treatment Response
9.7 Extensions to Fields >3 T
117(8)
Acknowledgment
118(1)
References
118(7)
PART III Characterizing Tissue Properties with Exogenous Contrast Agents
10 Contrast Agents for T1-Weighted MRI
125(10)
Jason R. Buck
Matthew R. Hight
Dewei Tang
H. Charles Manning
10.1 Introduction
125(1)
10.2 Complexes of Gadolinium
126(3)
10.3 Effect of Chelators on Metal-Water Interactions
129(1)
10.4 Macromolecules
129(2)
Macromolecules: Linear Species
Macromolecules: Nonlinear Species
Macromolecules: Protein/Saccharide Carriers
Macromolecules: "Smart" Agents
10.5 Targeted Agents
131(1)
10.6 Summary
131(4)
References
131(4)
11 Nanoparticles for T2-and T2*-Weighted MRI
135(8)
Michael Nickels
Wellington Pham
11.1 Introduction
135(1)
11.2 Design and Use of T2 Contrast Agents
135(2)
11.3 Targeted Nanopartieles for T2-Weighted Imaging
137(1)
11.4 Nanomedicine and Treatment Applications
138(1)
11.5 T2-Weighted Imaging
139(1)
11.6 Concluding Remarks
139(4)
References
139(4)
12 Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced MRI: Data Acquisition and Analysis
143(20)
Mary E. Loveless
Thomas E. Yankeelov
12.1 Qualitative Introduction
143(1)
Biological Motivation
Overview of Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced MRI
12.2 Quantitative Introduction
144(5)
T1 Mapping Techniques
Dynamic Acquisition
AIF
Modeling
12.3 Peclinical Applications in Cancer
149(4)
Early Drug Efficacy Studies: iAUC
Early Drug Efficacy Studies: Tofts
Early Drug Efficacy Studies: Extended Tofts
Studying Tumor Microenvironment
12.4 Application in Cancer Diagnosis
153(2)
Breast
Ovarian
Prostate
12.5 Application in Cancer Therapy
155(2)
Longitudinal Monitoring of Treatment Response in Breast
Longitudinal Monitoring of Treatment Response in Brain
Longitudinal Monitoring of Treatment Response in Prostate
12.6 Extensions to Fields>3 T
157(6)
References
157(6)
13 Dynamic Susceptibility MRI: Data Acquisition and Analysis
163(14)
C. Chad Quarles
13.1 Qualitative Introduction to Dynamic Susceptibility Contrast MRI
163(1)
13.2 Quantitative Introduction to DSC-MRI
164(8)
Tracer Kinetic Theory
DSC-MRI Signal Theory
DSC-MRI Techniques
DSC-MRI in Tumors
Arterial Input Function
13.3 Preclinical Applications in Cancer
172(1)
13.4 DSC-MRI Applications in Cancer Diagnosis
172(1)
13.5 DSC-MRI Applications in Cancer Therapy
173(1)
13.6 Extensions to Fields>3 T
174(1)
13.7 Summary
174(3)
References
174(3)
14 Magnetic Resonance Angiography
177(16)
Ronald R. Price
Ronald C. Arildsen
Jeffrey L. Creasy
14.1 Introduction
177(1)
14.2 Basics of MRI and Motion
177(1)
14.3 Non--Contrast-Enhanced MRA
178(6)
Wash-in Effects
Two-Dimensional Time-of-Flight MRA
Three-Dimensional Time-of-Flight MRA
Steady-State Free Precession Sequences
Phase Contrast MRA
14.4 Contrast-Enhanced MRA
184(2)
Three-Dimensional Contrast-Enhanced MRA
Filling K-Space
14.5 Preclinical Applications
186(2)
14.6 Clinical Applications
188(1)
14.7 MRA at Field Strengths>3 T
189(1)
14.8 Conclusion
189(4)
References
189(4)
PART IV Image Processing in Cancer
15 Imaging Tissue Oxygenation Status with MRI
193(10)
Nilesh Mistry
C. Chad Quarles
15.1 Qualitative Introduction to MR Imaging of Tissue Oxygenation
194(1)
Fluorine MRI
BOLD MRI
15.2 Quantitative Introduction to MR Imaging of Tissue Oxygenation
194(4)
Fluorine MRI: PFC Selection and Administration
Fluorine MRI Methods
BOLD MRI Methods
15.3 Preclinical Applications in Cancer
198(1)
Fluorine MRI
BOLD MRI
15.4 Clinical Applications in Cancer
199(1)
15.5 Summary
200(3)
References
200(3)
16 Clinical Assessment of the Response of Tumors to Treatment with MRI
203(10)
Mia Levy
16.1 Approach to Tumor Treatment Response Assessment
203(2)
16.2 Cancer Response Criteria
205(2)
History of Cancer Response Criteria
Detailed Example of RECIST 1.1 Criteria
16.3 Requirements for the Development of MRI-Based Cancer Response Criteria
207(2)
Assessment Modality
Measurement Technique
Correlation of Changes in Tumor Burden with Clinical Endpoints
Validation of Response Criteria
16.4 Biomedical Informatics Systems to Support Treatment Response Assessment
209(4)
Image Repositories
Image Annotation
Automated Response Interpretation Methods
Acknowledgment
210(1)
References
210(3)
17 Image Segmentation
213(24)
Shaun S. Gleason
Vincent C. Paquit
Deniz Aykac
17.1 Qualitative Introduction to Segmentation Techniques for MRI
214(2)
Data-Driven Techniques (Bottom-Up)
Model-Driven Techniques (Top-Down)
Hybrid Techniques (Low, Mid, and High Level)
17.2 Quantitative Introduction to Segmentation Techniques for MRI
216(7)
Bottom-Up Techniques
Hybrid Techniques
Model-Based Techniques
17.3 Preclinical Applications in Cancer
223(3)
Tumor Assessment Using Bottom-Up Methods
Organ Segmentation Using
Hybrid Methods
Organ Segmentation Using Top-Down Methods
17.4 Applications in Clinical Cancer Diagnosis
226(2)
Cancer Detection
Cancer Staging
17.5 Applications in Clinical Cancer Therapy
228(3)
Data-Driven Techniques
Hybrid Techniques
Model-Based Approaches for Cancer Therapy
17.6 Conclusion
231(6)
References
231(6)
18 Spatial and Temporal Image Registration
237(14)
Xia Li
18.1 Qualitative Introduction to Image Registration
237(1)
18.2 Quantitative Introduction to Image Registration
238(7)
Types of Transformations
Point-Based Registration Methods
Surface-Based
Registration Methods
Intensity-Based Registration Methods
18.3 Preclinical Applications in Cancer
245(1)
18.4 Clinical Applications in Cancer
245(1)
18.5 Summary
246(5)
Acknowledgments
247(1)
References
247(4)
19 Synthesis of Multiparametric Data
251(14)
Kathryn M. McMillan
C. Chad Quarles
Ronald R. Price
19.1 Introduction
251(1)
19.2 Methods for Multiparameter Mapping
251(4)
Composite Mapping
Statistically Based Methods
19.3 Applications in Cancer
255(4)
Preclinical Applications in Cancer
Applications in Cancer Diagnosis
Applications in Cancer Therapy
19.4 Summary
259(6)
References
259(6)
PART V Emerging Trend
20 MRI in Radiation Therapy Planning
265(12)
George X. Ding
Eddy S. Yang
Ken J. Niermann
Fen Xia
Anthony Cmelak
20.1 Qualitative Introduction to Technique
265(1)
20.2 Quantitative Introduction to Techniques of Quality Assurance of Image Registration
266(2)
20.3 Applications in Cancer Diagnosis
268(1)
20.4 Applications in Cancer Therapy
268(4)
Treatment Planning
MRI in the Management of Brain Tumors
Head and Neck Cancer
Response to Radiotherapy Treatment in HNSCC
MR Detects Changes in Pharyngeal Constrictors to Radiation
Lung Tumors
Breast Tumors
Gastrointestinal Tumors
Prostate Cancer
Cervical Cancer
20.5 Conclusion
272(5)
References
273(4)
21 Molecular and Cellular Imaging
277(12)
Martin Lepage
21.1 Molecular Imaging
277(6)
Design and Testing of MRI Molecular Imaging Agents
Types of Molecular Imaging Agents
Future Developments and Refinements
21.2 Cellular Imaging
283(2)
Overview of Techniques
Detectability Limits
Positive Contrast
Imaging of Superparamagnetic Cells
Limitations of Cell Labeling
Recent Advances in Cell Labeling
Alternative Cell Labeling Approaches
Cellular Imaging of Cancer
21.3 Summary
285(4)
Acknowledgments
285(1)
References
285(4)
22 Hyperpolarized MR of Cancer
289(14)
Kevin W. Waddell
Eduard Y. Chekmenev
22.1 Qualitative Introduction to Hyperpolarized Imaging Techniques
289(4)
Introduction to Thermal Polarization of Conventional MR and Hyperpolarization Techniques of MR Signal Enhancement
Sensitivity Enhancement by Hyperpolarization
Fundamentals of DNP
Fundamentals of PASADENA and PHIP
SABRE
Xenon (129Xe)-Induced Polarization (XIP)
22.2 Hyperpolarized MR Detection
293(2)
Decay of MR Hyperpolarization
MR Detection of Hyperpolarization
22.3 Preclinical Applications
295(4)
Metabolic Contrast Agents
Pyruvate
Succinate
Imaging of Tumor pH
15N-Choline
22.4 Applications in Cancer Therapy
299(4)
Monitor the Efficacy of Chemotherapy, Gene Therapy, and Radiation Therapy
Comparison with PET and Clinical Translation Perspectives
References
299(4)
Index 303
Thomas E. Yankeelov is the director of Cancer Imaging Research at the Vanderbilt University Institute of Imaging Science. He is also an associate professor of radiology and radiological sciences, physics and astronomy, biomedical engineering, and cancer biology at Vanderbilt University.

David R. Pickens is an associate professor of radiology and radiological sciences at the Vanderbilt University School of Medicine.

Ronald R. Price is a professor of radiology and radiological sciences as well as physics and astronomy at Vanderbilt University.
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