E-book: Radar and ARPA Manual

PrefaceAcknowledgments1 Basic Radar Principles 1.1 Introduction
1.2 Principles of Range Measurement 1.2.1 The Echo Principle
1.2.2 Range as a Function of Time 1.2.3 The Timebase 1.2.4
Calibration of the Timebase 1.2.5 The Synthetic Display 1.3
Principles of Bearing Measurement 1.3.1 Directional Transmission and
Reception 1.3.2 Synchronization of Scanner and Trace 1.3.3
The Build-up of the Picture 1.3.4 The Heading Marker 1.3.5
Bearing Measurement 1.4 Picture Orientation 1.4.1 Ship's-Head-up
Orientation (Unstabilized) 1.4.2 True-North-up Orientation
(Stabilized) 1.4.3 Course-up Orientation (Stabilized) 1.4.4
Choice of Orientation 1.5 Picture Presentation 1.5.1 The
Relative-Motion Presentation 1.5.2 The True-Motion Presentation
1.5.3 Choice of Presentation2 The Radar System - Operational Principles
2.1 Introduction 2.2 Function of Units 2.2.1 The Transmitter
Function 2.2.2 The Aerial Function 2.2.3 The Receiver
Function 2.2.4 The Display Function 2.3 Transmitter Principles
2.3.1 The Pulse Repetition Frequency 2.3.2 The Pulse Length,
Power and Shape 2.3.3 The Radio Frequency of the Transmitted Pulse
2.3.4 Selection of PRF and Pulse Length and Their Relationship with
Range Scale 2.4 Aerial Principles 2.4.1 Aerial Concepts
2.4.2 The Horizontal Beamwidth 2.4.3 The Vertical Beamwidth
2.4.4 Aerial Rotation Rate 2.4.5 Aerial and Display Rotation Link
2.4.6 Heading Marker Data 2.5 Receiver Principles 2.5.1
The Radio Frequency Section 2.5.2 The Intermediate Frequency
Amplifier 2.5.3 The Video Section 2.6 Display Principles
2.6.1 The Cathode Ray Tube 2.6.2 Real-time Picture Generation
2.6.3 Compass (or Azimuth) Stabilization 2.6.4 The Provision of
True-Motion Facilities 2.6.5 Echo Paint 2.6.6 The
Radial-Scan Synthetic Display 2.6.7 The Raster-Scan Synthetic
Display 2.7 The Siting of Units on Board Ship 2.7.1 Aerial
Siting 2.7.2 The Transceiver Unit 2.7.3 The Display Unit
2.7.4 Compass Safe Distances 2.7.5 Exposed and Protected
Equipment 2.7.6 Power Supplies 2.7.7 High Voltage Hazards
2.7.8 Interswitching3 Target Detection 3.1 Introduction 3.2
Radar Characteristics 3.2.1 Transmitter Characteristics
3.2.2 Antenna Characteristics 3.2.3 Receiver Characteristics
3.2.4 Minimum Detection Range 3.3 Target Characteristics 3.3.1
Aspect 3.3.2 Surface Texture 3.3.3 Material 3.3.4
Shape 3.3.5 Size 3.3.6 Responses from Specific Targets
3.4 Target Enhancement Passive 3.4.1 Corner Reflectors
3.4.2 Arrays of Reflectors 3.4.3 The Lunenburg Lens 3.4.4
Buoy Patterns 3.5 Target Enhancement - Active 3.5.1 The Racon
Principle 3.5.2 The Racon Appearance on the Display 3.5.3
Frequency and Polarization 3.5.4 The Ramark 3.5.5 Sources
of Radar Beacon Information 3.5.6 The Radaflare 3.5.7
Racons for Survival Craft 3.6 The Detection of Tar Gets in Sea Clutter
3.6.1 The Nature of the Sea Clutter Response 3.6.2 The Clutter
Problem Summarized 3.6.3 The Suppression of Displayed Sea Clutter
Signals 3.7 The Detection of Targets in Precipitation Clutter
3.7.1 The Nature of Precipitation Response 3.7.2 Attenuation in
Precipitation 3.7.3 The Effect of Precipitation Type 3.7.4
The Suppression of Rain Clutter 3.7.5 Combating the Attenuation
Caused by Precipitation 3.7.6 Exploiting the Ability of Radar to
Detect Precipitation 3.8 The Radar Horizon 3.8.1 The Effect of
Standard Atmospheric Conditions 3.8.2 Sub-Refraction 3.8.3
Super-Refraction 3.8.4 Extra Super-Refraction or Ducting 3.9
False and Unwanted Radar Responses 3.9.1 Introduction 3.9.2
Indirect Echoes (Reflected Echoes) 3.9.3 Multiple Echoes
3.9.4 Side Echoes 3.9.5 Radar-to-Radar Interference 3.9.6
Second-Trace Echoes 3.9.7 False Echoes from Power Cables4 Automatic
Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA), Specified Facilities 4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Stand-Alone ARPAs 4.1.2 Integral ARPAs 4.1.3 The
Requirement to Carry ARPA, and for Operator Training 4.1.4
Compliance with the IMO Performance Standards 4.2 The Acquisition of
Targets 4.2.1 The Acquisition Specification 4.2.2 Manual
Acquisition 4.2.3 Fully Automatic Acquisition 4.2.4
Automatic Acquisition by Area 4.2.5 Guard Zones 4.2.6 Guard
Rings and Area Rejection Boundaries (ARBs) 4.3 The Tracking of Targets
4.3.1 The Tracking Specification 4.3.2 Rate Aiding
4.3.3 The Number of Targets to be Tracked 4.3.4 Target Loss
4.3.5 Target Swop 4.3.6 The Analysis of Tracks and the Display of
Data 4.3.7 Tracking History 4.4 Vectors 4.4.1 Relative
Vectors 4.4.2 True Vectors 4.4.3 Trial Maneuver 4.5 The
ARPA Display 4.5.1 The Continued Availability of Radar Data in the
Event of an ARPA Malfunction 4.5.2 The Size of the Display
4.5.3 The Range Scales on Which ARPA Facilities should be Available
4.5.4 The Modes of Display 4.5.5 ARPA Data should not Obscure Radar
Data 4.5.6 The ARPA Data Brilliance Control 4.5.7 The
Ability to View the Display 4.5.8 The Use of the Marker for Range
and Bearing Measurement 4.5.9 The Effect of Changing Range Scales
4.6 The Display of Alphanumeric Data 4.7 Alarms and Warnings
4.7.1 Guard Zone Violation 4.7.2 Predicted CPA/TCPA Violation
4.7.3 Lost Target 4.7.4 Performance Tests and Warnings 4.8
Connections with Other Equipment5 ARPA - Additional Facilities 5.1
Introduction 5.2 Additional Alarms and Warnings 5.2.1 Loss of
Sensor Input 5.2.2 Track Change 5.2.3 Anchor Watch
5.2.4 Tracks Full 5.2.5 Wrong or Invalid Request 5.2.6 Time
to Maneuver 5.2.7 Safe Limit Vector Suppression 5.2.8 Trial
Alarm 5.3 Automatic Ground-Stabilization 5.4 Navigational Lines and
Maps 5.5 The Potential Point of Collision (PPC) 5.5.1 The
Concept of Collision Points 5.5.2 The Behavior of Collision Points
if the Observing Ship Maintains Speed 5.5.3 The Behavior of the
Collision Point When the Target Ship's Speed Changes 5.5.4 The
Behavior of the Collision Point When the Target Changes Course 5.6 The
Predicted Area of Danger (PAD) 5.6.1 The PAD in Practice
5.6.2 Changes in the Shape of the PAD 5.6.3 The Movement of the PAD6
The Radar System - Operational Controls 6.1 Optimum Performance 6.2
Setting-up Procedure for an Analogue Display 6.2.1 Preliminary
Procedure 6.2.2 Switching on 6.2.3 Preparing the Display
6.2.4 Obtaining the Optimum Picture 6.3 Setting-up Procedure for a
Radial-Scan Synthetic Display 6.3.1 Preliminary Procedure
6.3.2 Switching on 6.3.3 Preparing the Display 6.3.4
Obtaining the Optimum Picture 6.4 Setting-up Procedure for a Raster-Scan
Synthetic Display 6.4.1 Preliminary Procedure 6.4.2
Switching on 6.4.3 Preparing the Display 6.4.4 Obtaining
the Optimum Picture 6.5 Performance Monitoring 6.5.1 The
Principle of the Echo Box 6.5.2 Echo Box Siting 6.5.3 Power
Monitors 6.5.4 Transponder Performance Monitors 6.5.5
Calibration Levels 6.5.6 Performance Check Procedure 6.6 Change
of Range Scale and/or Pulse Length 6.7 The Stand-by Condition 6.8
Setting up the Display for a True-Motion Picture Presentation 6.8.1
The Controls 6.8.2 Setting up a Sea-Stabilized Presentation
6.8.3 Setting up a Ground-Stabilized Presentation 6.9 Controls for Range
and Bearing Measurement 6.9.1 Fixed Range Rings 6.9.2
Variable Range Marker (VRM) 6.9.3 The Perspex Cursor 6.9.4
Parallel Index 6.9.5 The Electronic Bearing Line (EBL)
6.9.6 Free Electronic Range and Bearing Line 6.9.7 Joystick and
Screen Marker 6.9.8 Range Accuracy 6.9.9 Bearing Accuracy
6.10 Controls for the Suppression of Unwanted Responses 6.10.1 Sea
Clutter Suppression 6.10.2 Rain Clutter Suppression 6.10.3
Interference Suppression 6.11 Miscellaneous Controls 6.11.1 Echo
Stretch 6.11.2 Second-Trace Echo Elimination 6.12 Setting-up
Procedure for an ARPA Display 6.12.1 The Input of Radar Data
6.12.2 Switching on the Computer 6.12.3 Heading and Speed Input
Data 6.12.4 Setting the ARPA Brilliance 6.12.5 Setting the
Vector Time Control 6.12.6 Setting the Vector Mode 6.12.7
Safe Limits 6.12.8 Preparation for Tracking 6.13 Switching off7
Radar Plotting 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The Relative Plot 7.2.1
The Vector Triangle 7.2.2 The Plotted Triangle 7.2.3 The
Construction of the Plot 7.2.4 The Practicalities of Plotting
7.2.5 The Need to Extract Numerical Data 7.2.6 The Plot in Special
Cases Where no Triangle 'Appears' 7.3 The True Plot 7.4 The Plot When
only the Target Maneuvers 7.4.1 The Construction of the Plot
7.4.2 The Danger in Attempting to Guess the Action Taken by a Target 7.5
The Plot When Own Ship Maneuvers 7.5.1 The Plot When Own Ship Alters
Course only 7.5.2 The Construction of the Plot 7.5.3 The
Plot When Own Ship Alters Speed only 7.5.4 The Construction of the
Plot 7.5.5 The Use of 'Stopping Distance' Tables, Graphs and Formula
7.5.6 The Plot When Own Ship Combines Course and Speed Alterations
7.5.7 The Plot When Own Ship Resumes Course and/or Speed
7.5.8 The Plot When both Vessels Maneuver Simultaneously 7.6 The Theory
and Construction of PPCs, PADs, SODs and SOPs 7.6.1 The Possible
Point of Collision (PPC) 7.6.2 The Construction to Find the PPC
7.6.3 The Predicted Area of Danger (PAD) 7.6.4 The Construction
of the PAD 7.6.5 The Sector of Danger (SOD) 7.6.6 The
Construction of a Sector of Danger 7.6.7 The Sector of Preference
(SOP) 7.6.8 The Construction of a Sector of Preference 7.7 The
Plot in Tide 7.7.1 The Construction of the Plot 7.7.2 The
Course to Steer to Counteract the Tide 7.7.3 The Change of Course
Needed to Maintain Track When Changing Speed in Tide 7.8 The Theory and
Practice of Reflection Plotters 7.8.1 The Construction of the
Reflection Plotter 7.8.2 Testing and Adjustment 7.8.3 Care
and Maintenance 7.8.4 The Practical Use of Reflection Plotters
7.8.5 Changing Range Scale 7.8.6 The Use of the 'Free' EBL to
Draw Parallel Lines 7.8.7 Fixed and Rotatable Surfaces - Use with a
Ship's-Head-up Unstabilized Display 7.8.8 Flat and Concave Surfaces
7.8.9 Use in Conjunction with Parallel Indexing 7.8.10
Reflection Plotters and Raster-scan Displays 7.9 Manual Plotting -
Accuracy and Errors 7.9.1 Accuracy of Bearings as Plotted
7.9.2 Accuracy of Ranges as Plotted 7.9.3 Accuracy of Own Ship's
Speed 7.9.4 Accuracy of Own Ship's Course 7.9.5 Accuracy of
the Plotting Interval 7.9.6 The Accuracy with Which CPA Can be
Determined 7.9.7 The Consequences of Random Errors in Own Ship's
Course and Speed 7.9.8 Summary 7.10 Errors Associated with the
True-Motion Presentation 7.10.1 Incorrect Setting of the True-Motion
Controls 7.10.2 Tracking Course Errors 7.10.3 Tracking
Speed Errors 7.10.4 The Effect of Radial Display Nonlinearity
7.11 Radar Plotting Aids 7.11.1 The Radar Plotting Board
7.11.2 Threat Assessment Markers 7.11.3 The 'E' Plot 7.11.4
Intelligent Knowledge-Based Systems as Applied to Collision Avoidance
7.12 The Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea as Applied to Radar and
ARPA 7.12.1 Introduction 7.12.2 Lookout - Rule 5
7.12.3 Safe Speed - Rule 6 7.12.4 Risk of Collision - Rule 7
7.12.5 Conduct of Vessels in Restricted Visibility - Rule 19 7.12.6
Action to Avoid Collision Rule 8 7.12.7 The Cumulative Turn
7.12.8 Conclusion8 Navigation Techniques Using Radar and ARPA 8.1
Introduction 8.2 Identification of Targets and Chart Comparison
8.2.1 Long Range Target Identification 8.2.2 The Effect of
Discrimination 8.2.3 Shadow Areas 8.2.4 Rise and Fall of
Tide 8.2.5 Radar-Conspicuous Targets 8.2.6 Pilotage
Situations 8.3 Position Fixing 8.3.1 Selection of Targets
8.3.2 Types of Position Line 8.4 Parallel Indexing 8.4.1
Introduction 8.4.2 Preparations and Precautions 8.4.3
Parallel Indexing, the Technique 8.4.4 Progress Monitoring
8.4.5 Parallel Indexing on a True-Motion Display 8.4.6 Modern Radar
Navigation Facilities 8.4.7 Unplanned Parallel Indexing
8.4.8 Anti-Collision Manoeuvring While Parallel Indexing9 ARPA - Accuracy and
Errors 9.1 Introduction 9.2 The Test Scenarios 9.3 The Accuracy
of Displayed Data Required by the Performance Standard 9.4 The
Classification of ARPA Error Sources 9.5 Errors That are Generated in the
Radar Installation 9.5.1 Glint 9.5.2 Errors in Bearing
Measurement 9.5.3 Errors in Range Measurement 9.5.4 The
Effect of Random Gyro Compass Errors 9.5.5 The Effect of Random Log
Errors 9.5.6 The Magnitude of Sensor Errors Specified in the
Performance Standard 9.6 Errors in Displayed Data 9.6.1 Target
Swop 9.6.2 Track Errors 9.6.3 The Effect on Vectors of
Incorrect Course and Speed Input 9.6.4 The Effect on the PPC of
Incorrect Data Input 9.7 Errors of Interpretation 9.7.1 Errors
with Vector Systems 9.7.2 Errors with PPC and PAD Systems
9.7.3 The Misleading Effect of Afterglow 9.7.4 Accuracy of the
Presented Data 9.7.5 Missed Targets10 Extracts from official
Publications 10.1 Extract from Regulation 12,
Chapter V of the IMO-SOLAS
(1974) Convention as Amended to 1983 10.2 Extracts from IMO Resolutions
A222(VII), A278(VIII), A477(XII) 10.2.1 Performance Standards for
Navigational Radar Equipment Installed before 1 September 1984
10.2.2 Performance Standards for Navigational Radar Equipment Installed on or
After 1 September 1984 10.3 Extract from IMO Resolution A422(XI), 10.3.1
Performance Standards for Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA) 10.4
Extracts from IMO Resolutions A423 (XI) and A277 (VIII), Radar Beacons,
Transponders and Reflectors 10.4.1 Marine Uses of Radar Beacons and
Transponders 10.4.2 Performance Standards for Radar Reflectors
10.5 Extract from United Kingdom Merchant Shipping Notice Ml 158, The Use of
Radar including ARPA 10.6 Extracts from United Kingdom Statutory
Instrument 1984, No. 1203Glossary of Acronyms and AbbreviationsIndex