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E-raamat: Alberta Oil Sands: Energy, Industry and the Environment

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Alberta Oil Sands: Energy, Industry and the EnvironmentSuurem pilt
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At 170 billion barrels, Canada's Oil Sands are the third largest reserves of developable oil in the world. The Oil Sands now produce about 1.6 million barrels per day, with production expected to double by 2025 to about 3.7 million barrels per day. The Athabasca Oil Sands Region (AOSR) in northeastern Alberta is the largest of the three oil sands deposits. Bitumen in the oil sands is recovered through one of two primary methods - mining and drilling. About 20 per cent of the reserves are close to the surface and can be mined using large shovels and trucks. Of concern are the effects of the industrial development on the environment. Both human-made and natural sources emit oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, trace elements and persistent organic compounds. Of additional concern are ground level ozone and greenhouse gases.

Because of the requirement on operators to comply with the air quality regulatory policies, and to address public concerns, the not-for-profit, multi-stakeholder Wood Buffalo Environmental Association (WBEA) has since 1997 been closely monitoring air quality in AOSR. In 2008, WBEA assembled a distinguished group of international scientists who have been conducting measurements and practical research on various aspects of air emissions and their potential effects on terrestrial receptors. This book is a synthesis of the concepts and results of those on-going studies. It contains 19 chapters ranging from a global perspective of energy production, measurement methodologies and behavior of various air pollutants during fossil fuel production in a boreal forest ecosystem, towards designing and deploying a multi-disciplinary, proactive, and long-term environmental monitoring system that will also meet regulatory expectations.

  • Covers measurement of emissions from very large industrial sources in a region with huge international media profile
  • Validation of measurement technologies can be applied globally
  • The new approaches to ecological monitoring described can be applied in other forested regions

    • Arvustused

    "This volume contains papers presented at an eponymous international symposium held in conjunction with the 43rd International Air Pollution Workshop (May 2011), in Alberta, Canada. These papers, along with other included material, come from projects undertaken by the Wood Buffalo Environmental Association (WBEA), which has, since 2008, undertaken intense study of environmental monitoring activities." --Reference and Research Book News, October 2013

    Muu info

    Presents the work of an international, multidisciplinary scientific team measuring and monitoring the environmental effects of recovery of the oil from the Athabasca Oil Sands
    Contributors xv
    Acknowledgments xix
    Preface xxi
    Introduction xxv
    Introduction to the Book Series xxvii
    1 Energy Production: A Global Perspective
    		1(18)
    R.L. Orbach
    1.1 The Situation
    		1(9)
    1.2 Some Remedies
    		10(6)
    1.2.1 Cost-Effective Capture and Storage of CO2 Through Energy Production from Saline Aquifers
    		10(2)
    1.2.2 Solar Energy to Produce Transportation Fuels
    		12(2)
    1.2.3 Electrical Energy Storage at Base-Load Levels
    		14(2)
    1.3 Summary
    		16(3)
    References
    		17(2)
    2 Energy Developments in Canada's Oil Sands
    		19(16)
    G. Stringham
    2.1 Introduction
    		20(1)
    2.2 Early Days
    		21(3)
    2.3 Opportunities and Challenges
    		24(7)
    2.3.1 Greenhouse Gases and Air Quality
    		25(2)
    2.3.2 Water Use, Tailings Ponds, and Quality
    		27(2)
    2.3.3 Land---Impact and Reclamation
    		29(1)
    2.3.4 Market Access
    		30(1)
    2.4 The Path Forward
    		31(4)
    2.4.1 Governments
    		32(1)
    2.4.2 Industry
    		32(1)
    2.4.3 Working Together
    		33(1)
    References
    		33(2)
    3 Energy and Environment: Toward Achieving the Balance in Alberta
    		35(12)
    M. Lowey
    3.1 Introduction
    		35(3)
    3.2 Air Pollution and Greenhouse Gas Emissions
    		38(5)
    3.3 Water Management
    		43(1)
    3.4 Land Use and Waste Management
    		44(1)
    3.5 Summary
    		44(3)
    References
    		45(2)
    4 Air Quality in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region 2011
    		47(46)
    K.E. Percy
    M.C. Hansen
    T. Dann
    4.1 The Wood Buffalo Environmental Association Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network
    		48(4)
    4.2 Major Emission Sources in the Athabasca Oil Sands
    		52(1)
    4.3 Continuously Monitored Air Pollutants
    		52(12)
    4.3.1 Sulfur Dioxide
    		55(1)
    4.3.2 Nitrogen Dioxide
    		56(1)
    4.3.3 Ozone
    		56(2)
    4.3.4 Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5)
    		58(2)
    4.3.5 Ammonia
    		60(1)
    4.3.6 Total Reduced Sulfur/Hydrogen Sulfide
    		61(2)
    4.3.7 Hydrocarbons
    		63(1)
    4.4 Time-Integrated Measurements
    		64(18)
    4.4.1 Volatile Organic Compounds
    		64(3)
    4.4.2 Reduced Sulfur Compounds
    		67(3)
    4.4.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
    		70(4)
    4.4.4 Total Gaseous Mercury Monitoring at AMS 6 Patricia McInnes
    		74(8)
    4.5 2011 Air Quality Health Index Values
    		82(2)
    4.6 Trends and Other Regions
    		84(3)
    4.6.1 Long-Term Trends
    		84(1)
    4.6.2 Other Regions
    		85(2)
    4.7 Summary
    		87(6)
    Acknowledgments
    		89(1)
    References
    		89(4)
    5 Development and Application of Statistical Approaches for Reducing Uncertainty in Ambient Air Quality Data
    		93(20)
    M. Nosal
    A.H. Legge
    E.M. Nosal
    M.C. Hansen
    5.1 Introduction
    		94(1)
    5.2 Recent Attempts Related to Uncertainty
    		95(2)
    5.3 ISO Measurement Uncertainty Estimation Methodology
    		97(2)
    5.4 Alternative Approach to Uncertainty Using the Weibull Distribution
    		99(3)
    5.5 MCMs for Uncertainty Estimation
    		102(3)
    5.6 Estimation of Uncertainty in WBEA Measurements
    		105(3)
    5.7 Conclusions
    		108(5)
    Acknowledgments
    		109(1)
    References
    		109(4)
    6 Co-measurement of Volatile Organic and Sulfur Compounds in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region by Dual Detector Pneumatic Focusing Gas Chromatography
    		113(32)
    R.J. O'Brien
    K.E. Percy
    A.H. Legge
    6.1 Introduction
    		114(2)
    6.2 Background Review
    		116(1)
    6.2.1 VOC Measurements
    		116(1)
    6.2.2 Sulfur Measurements
    		117(1)
    6.3 Experimental Methods---Pneumatic Focusing Gas Chromatography
    		117(6)
    6.3.1 VOC Measurements
    		117(1)
    6.3.2 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry
    		117(1)
    6.3.3 "Baseline" VOCs
    		118(1)
    6.3.4 Sulfur Gas Measurements
    		118(1)
    6.3.5 Dual-Detector Pneumatic Focusing GC---Principles and Operation
    		119(2)
    6.3.6 Chromatographic Separation
    		121(2)
    6.4 Current Locations for PFGC Monitoring in the AOSR
    		123(1)
    6.5 Results and Discussion
    		123(13)
    6.5.1 Sulfur Compounds
    		125(5)
    6.5.2 Compound Identification, Calibration, and Quantification
    		130(6)
    6.6 Recent Sulfur Measurements
    		136(1)
    6.6.1 RSC Chromatograms
    		136(1)
    6.6.2 Cartridge Versus Canister Samples for GC/MS Analysis
    		136(1)
    6.7 Summary and Conclusions
    		137(8)
    6.7.1 Current Measurement Status
    		137(2)
    6.7.2 Potential Odor Compounds
    		139(2)
    6.7.3 On-Going Efforts and Goals
    		141(1)
    Acknowledgments
    		141(2)
    References
    		143(2)
    7 Overview of Real-World Emission Characterization Methods
    		145(26)
    J.C. Watson
    J.C. Chow
    X.L. Wang
    S.D. Kohl
    L.-W.A. Chen
    V. Etyemezian
    7.1 Introduction
    		145(3)
    7.2 Stationary Source Emissions
    		148(3)
    7.3 Engine Exhaust Emissions
    		151(7)
    7.4 Fugitive Dust Emissions
    		158(3)
    7.5 Emerging Technologies for Source Characterization
    		161(10)
    Acknowledgments
    		162(1)
    References
    		162(9)
    8 Measurement of Real-World Stack Emissions with a Dilution Sampling System
    		171(22)
    X.L. Wang
    J.C. Watson
    J.C. Chow
    S.D. Kohl
    L.-W.A. Chen
    D.A. Sodeman
    A.H. Legge
    K.E. Percy
    8.1 Introduction
    		171(3)
    8.2 Material and Methods
    		174(4)
    8.2.1 Source Description and Sampling Conditions
    		174(1)
    8.2.2 Dilution Sampling System
    		174(4)
    8.2.3 Data Reduction
    		178(1)
    8.3 Results and Discussion
    		178(10)
    8.3.1 PM2.S Source Profiles
    		178(3)
    8.3.2 PM Size Distributions and Optical Properties
    		181(3)
    8.3.3 Gas and PM Concentrations and Emission Rates
    		184(4)
    8.4 Summary
    		188(5)
    Acknowledgments
    		189(1)
    References
    		189(4)
    9 Applying the Forest Health Approach to Monitoring Boreal Ecosystems in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region
    		193(26)
    K.E. Percy
    D.C. Maynard
    A.H. Legge
    9.1 Introduction
    		194(1)
    9.2 Terrestrial Environmental Monitoring in the Athabasca Oil Sands Prior to 2008
    		195(5)
    9.3 Defining Forest Health
    		200(1)
    9.4 TEEM Forest Health Network Design
    		201(10)
    9.4.1 Conceptual Design: Area Restriction, and Adaptive Capacity
    		201(2)
    9.4.2 Ecologically Analogous Plots, Indicators, and Endpoints
    		203(3)
    9.4.3 Deployment and Comeasurement
    		206(5)
    9.5 Investigative Studies to Enhance the TEEM Program
    		211(2)
    9.6 Summary
    		213(6)
    Acknowledgments
    		214(1)
    References
    		214(5)
    10 Ecological Analogues for Biomonitoring Industrial Sulfur Emissions in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region, Alberta, Canada
    		219(24)
    D.R. Jaques
    A.H. Legge
    10.1 Introduction
    		220(1)
    10.2 Overview of Methods
    		221(1)
    10.3 Results
    		222(12)
    10.3.1 Atmospheric Emissions
    		222(1)
    10.3.2 Wind Patterns
    		223(1)
    10.3.3 EAT Classification
    		223(5)
    10.3.4 Air-Photo Interpretation of EAT #3 Sites
    		228(5)
    10.3.5 Jack Pine Forest Stand Edges and Early Warning for Pollutant Effects
    		233(1)
    10.4 Application Examples
    		234(4)
    10.5 Conclusions
    		238(5)
    Acknowledgment
    		238(1)
    References
    		238(5)
    11 Tracing Industrial Nitrogen and Sulfur Emissions in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region Using Stable Isotopes
    		243(1)
    B.C. Proemse
    B. Mayer
    11.1 Introduction
    		243(1)
    11.2 Study Area and Sampling
    		244(2)
    11.3 Methods
    		246(1)
    11.4 Results and Discussion
    		247(14)
    11.4.1 Stack Emitted Particulate Matter (PM2.5)
    		247(1)
    11.4.2 Atmospheric Deposition
    		248(3)
    11.4.3 Lichens as Bioindicators
    		251(4)
    11.4.4 Conifer Needles
    		255(6)
    11.5 Summary
    		261(1)
    11.6 Acknowledgments
    		262(5)
    References
    		262(5)
    12 Air Quality Modeling in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region
    		267(44)
    M.J.E. Davies
    12.1 Introduction
    		267(1)
    12.2 Historical Model Applications
    		268(7)
    12.2.1 Regulatory Models
    		268(1)
    12.2.2 The AOSERP/RMD and Industry Period
    		269(4)
    12.2.3 The RSDS and CEMA Period
    		273(2)
    12.3 WBEA Case Study: Model Input
    		275(12)
    12.3.1 Spatial Boundaries
    		276(1)
    12.3.2 Source and Emission Inventory
    		276(3)
    12.3.3 Topography
    		279(2)
    12.3.4 Land Cover
    		281(2)
    12.3.5 WBEA Case Study: Meteorology
    		283(4)
    12.4 WBEA Case Study: CALPUFF Model Options
    		287(1)
    12.5 WBEA Case Study: Model Performance
    		288(3)
    12.5.1 SO2 Comparison
    		288(3)
    12.5.2 NO2 Comparison
    		291(1)
    12.6 WBEA Case Study: Deposition
    		291(6)
    12.6.1 Calculation Approach
    		291(3)
    12.6.2 Background Deposition
    		294(1)
    12.6.3 Predicted Sulfur Deposition (With Background)
    		294(1)
    12.6.4 Predicted Nitrogen Deposition (With Background)
    		294(1)
    12.6.5 Correlations Between Model Predictions
    		295(2)
    12.7 WBEA Case Study: Lichen Comparison
    		297(5)
    12.7.1 Sulfur Compounds
    		299(1)
    12.7.2 Nitrogen Compounds
    		299(3)
    12.8 Conclusions
    		302(9)
    12.8.1 Model History
    		302(1)
    12.8.2 Case Study Findings
    		302(1)
    Acknowledgments
    		303(1)
    References
    		303(8)
    13 WBEA Receptor Modeling Study in the Athabasca Oil Sands: An Introduction
    		311(4)
    S. Krupa
    14 Method for Extraction and Multielement Analysis of Hypogymnia physodes samples from the Athabasca Oil Sands Region
    		315(28)
    E.S. Edgerton
    J.M. Fort
    K. Baumann
    J.R. Graney
    M.S. Landis
    S. Berryman
    S. Krupa
    14.1 Introduction
    		316(1)
    14.2 Materials and Methods
    		317(4)
    14.2.1 Lichen Samples
    		317(2)
    14.2.2 Sample Digestion
    		319(1)
    14.2.3 Multielement Analysis via ICPMS
    		319(2)
    14.3 Results and Discussion
    		321(19)
    14.3.1 Detection Limits
    		321(2)
    14.3.2 SRM Recoveries
    		323(1)
    14.3.3 Lab Replicates
    		324(2)
    14.3.4 Data Overview
    		326(10)
    14.3.5 Comparison with H. physodes Data from Previous Studies
    		336(4)
    14.4 Conclusions
    		340(3)
    Acknowledgments
    		341(1)
    References
    		341(2)
    15 Coupling Lead Isotopes and Element Concentrations in Epiphytic Lichens to Track Sources of Air Emissions in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region
    		343(30)
    J.R. Graney
    M.S. Landis
    S. Krupa
    15.1 Introduction
    		344(2)
    15.2 Materials and Methods
    		346(1)
    15.3 Results
    		347(12)
    15.3.1 Theory for Using Pb Isotopes to Help Identify Sources
    		347(1)
    15.3.2 Comparing Results from 2002 to 2008
    		348(3)
    In Lichens
    		351(1)
    15.3.4 Contouring Lichen Concentrations to Aid in Spatial Assessments
    		352(6)
    15.3.5 Source Samples
    		358(1)
    15.4 Discussion
    		359(8)
    15.4.1 Other Studies That Document Emissions of Metals from Point Sources of Pollution in Canada
    		359(1)
    15.4.2 Controls on Metal Concentrations and Accumulation by Lichens in the AOSR
    		360(3)
    15.4.3 Other Work That Examined Pb Isotopes in Lichens
    		363(3)
    15.4.4 Comparing Pb Isotope Ratios in Aerosols to those in Lichens from the AOSR
    		366(1)
    15.5 Conclusions
    		367(6)
    Acknowledgments
    		368(1)
    References
    		368(5)
    16 Mercury Concentration and Isotopic Composition of Epiphytic Tree Lichens in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region
    		373(18)
    J.D. Blum
    M.W. Johnson
    J.D. Gleason
    J.D. Demers
    M.S. Landis
    S. Krupa
    16.1 Introduction
    		374(2)
    16.2 Methods
    		376(2)
    16.2.1 Sample Collection and Preparation
    		376(1)
    16.2.2 Hg Concentration Analysis
    		376(1)
    16.2.3 Sample Preparation for Isotope Analysis
    		377(1)
    16.2.4 Mass Spectrometry
    		377(1)
    16.2.5 Analytical Uncertainty
    		378(1)
    16.3 Results and Discussion
    		378(8)
    16.3.1 Hg Concentrations of H. physodes
    		378(2)
    16.3.2 Hg Concentrations of Other Species of Epiphytic Lichens
    		380(1)
    16.3.3 Spatial Variation in Hg Concentrations of H. physodes
    		380(1)
    16.3.4 Hg Isotopic Composition of H. physodes
    		381(3)
    16.3.5 Spatial Variation in Hg Isotopic Composition of H. physodes
    		384(1)
    16.3.6 Hg Isotopic Composition of Oil Sands Materials
    		384(2)
    16.4 Proposed Mechanism to Explain Hg Isotopic Variability
    		386(1)
    16.5 Conclusions
    		387(4)
    Acknowledgments
    		388(1)
    References
    		388(3)
    17 Measurement of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Epiphytic Lichens for Receptor Modeling in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region (AOSR): A Pilot Study
    		391(36)
    W.B. Studabaker
    S. Krupa
    R.K.M. Jayanty
    J.H. Raymer
    17.1 Introduction
    		392(12)
    17.1.1 Lichens as Bioaccumulators of PAHs
    		393(7)
    17.1.2 Factors Affecting Bioaccumulation of PAHs by Lichens
    		400(1)
    17.1.3 Use of Lichens in Source Apportionment of PAHs
    		401(3)
    17.1.4 Use of Lichens as Bioaccumulators in the AOSR
    		404(1)
    17.2 Methods
    		404(5)
    17.2.1 Sample Collection
    		404(2)
    17.2.2 Sample Extraction and Cleanup
    		406(1)
    17.2.3 GC-MS Analysis
    		406(2)
    17.2.4 Quality Control
    		408(1)
    17.2.5 Air Samples
    		408(1)
    17.2.6 Statistical Analysis
    		408(1)
    17.3 Results
    		409(8)
    17.3.1 Method Development
    		409(1)
    17.3.2 Sample Analyses
    		410(7)
    17.4 Discussion
    		417(2)
    17.4.1 Analytical Methodology
    		417(1)
    17.4.2 Implications of the Current Study for Receptor Modeling
    		418(1)
    17.5 Conclusions
    		419(8)
    Acknowledgments
    		421(1)
    References
    		422(5)
    18 Receptor Modeling of Epiphytic Lichens to Elucidate the Sources and Spatial Distribution of Inorganic Air Pollution in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region
    		427(42)
    M.S. Landis
    J.P. Pancras
    J.R. Graney
    R.K. Stevens
    K.E. Percy
    S. Krupa
    18.1 Introduction
    		428(3)
    18.2 Methods
    		431(8)
    18.2.1 Lichen Sampling and Analysis
    		431(1)
    18.2.2 Source Sampling and Analysis
    		431(1)
    18.2.3 Theory and Concepts of Source Apportionment and Receptor Models
    		432(7)
    18.3 Results and Discussion
    		439(23)
    18.3.1 AOSR Source Characterization
    		439(1)
    18.3.2 Modeling Information
    		440(7)
    18.3.3 PCA: Multilinear Regression
    		447(3)
    18.3.4 Chemical Mass Balance
    		450(3)
    18.3.5 PMF and Unmix Modeling
    		453(9)
    18.4 Conclusions
    		462(7)
    Acknowledgments
    		464(1)
    References
    		464(5)
    19 Concluding Remarks
    		469(16)
    K.E. Percy
    S. Krupa
    19.1 Introduction
    		469(2)
    19.2 Summary of Book Content
    		471(6)
    19.3 Symposium Panel Discussion
    		477(3)
    19.3.1 The Panel
    		477(2)
    19.3.2 Discussion
    		479(1)
    19.4 Future Perspectives
    		480(5)
    References
    		482(3)
    Index 485
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