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E-raamat: Analysis of Flame Retardancy In Polymer Science

Edited by Mohammad Reza Saeb (University Professor, Department of Polymer Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Poland), Edited by Giulio Malucelli (Professor, Department of Applied Science and Technology, P), Edited by Henri Vahabi (Full Professor, University of Lorraine, Metz, France)

Formaat: PDF+DRM
Ilmumisaeg: 10-Mar-2022
Kirjastus: Elsevier Science Publishing Co Inc
Keel: eng
ISBN-13: 9780128242612

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Formaat: PDF+DRM
Ilmumisaeg: 10-Mar-2022
Kirjastus: Elsevier Science Publishing Co Inc
Keel: eng
ISBN-13: 9780128242612

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Analysis of Flame Retardancy in Polymer Science is a scientific/practical book that is conceptualized, designed, and written for students, early-career researchers, and junior engineers to explain the basic principles of fire analysis/characterization methods/methodologies, from flammability, ignition, and fire spread to forced convection and related analyses and to elucidate the mechanisms underlying flame retardancy in both gas and condensed phases followed by correlation between laboratory- and real-scale fire analyses as well as fire analysis from an industrial standpoint. This book is also an indispensable resource for identifying and mounting the latest achievements in fire analysis/characterization methods to frame the effects of fire evaluation strategies to be utilized for research and development. The book also gives a broad description of fire analysis related to different standards and regulations for different applications in different geographic zones.

Contributors

xiii

Preface

Chapter 1 Fundamentals: Flammability, ignition, and fire spread in polymers

(72)

Arthur Richard Horrocks

1 Introduction

(4)

1.1 Polymers and the fire triangle

(2)

1.2 Glossary of terms

(2)

2 Thermal transitions, thermoplasticity, and geometric effects

(5)

2.1 Thermophysical effects

(1)

2.2 Thermally thin versus thermally thick materials

(1)

2.3 Effect of sample geometry, orientation, and physical structure

(2)

3 Fuel-forming reactions: Polymer pyrolysis and ignition

(17)

3.1 Thermal degradation or pyrolysis

(2)

3.2 Pyrolysis of individual polymer types

(15)

4 Oxidative degradation

(1)

5 Combustion and fire spread: Effect of incident heat flux

(9)

5.1 Ignition

(1)

5.2 Effect of heat flux

(5)

5.3 Smoke

(1)

6 Flame retardance: Effect of flame retardants on ignition, combustion, and smoke generation

(10)

6.1 Flame-retardant types and characteristics

(2)

6.2 Synergism, additivity, and antagonism

(3)

6.3 Environmental challenges and the potential for nanotechnology FR developments

(3)

7 General appraisal of pyrolysis/ignition/burn versus reaction-to-fire test methodologies

(7)

7.1 Simple ignition-based tests

(1)

7.2 Reaction-to-fire tests

(4)

7.3 Smoke tests

(1)

74 Exemplar larger-scale, reaction-fire tests

(2)

8 Conclusions and future perspectives

(2)

References

(14)

Further reading

(1)

Chapter 2 Forced combustion; Cone calorimetry

(18)

Vytenis Babrauskas

1 Introduction

(2)

2 The forced-combustion environment

(3)

3 Additional instrumentation

(3)

4 Using the data

(5)

4.1 Simple methods

(4)

4.2 Data for modeling

(1)

5 Conclusions

(1)

Acknowledgment

(1)

References

(4)

Chapter 3 Microscale forced combustion: Pyrolysis-combustion flow calorimetry CPCFC}

(26)

Rodolphe Sonnier

1 Introduction

(1)

2 PCFC description

(3)

3 Study of pyrolysis

(5)

3.1 Combining PCFC and TGA

(1)

3.2 Activation energy for pyrolysis

(2)

3.3 Interactions in solid phase

(1)

3.4 Aerobic pyrolysis--- Thermo-oxidation

(2)

4 Combustion

100

(7)

4.1 Incomplete combustion in PCFC by controlling the combustor temperature

100

(2)

4.2 Monitoring the residence time in combustor

102

(2)

4.3 Coupling PCFC with gas analyzers

104

(2)

4.4 Monitoring the fuel/oxygen ratio

106

(1)

5 Prediction of flammability data

107

(6)

5.1 Predicting the flammability of polymeric structures

107

(1)

5.2 Predicting the temperature of solid surface atignition from PCFC

108

(2)

5.3 Correlations with fire tests

110

(2)

5.4 Milligram-scale flame calorimetry (MFC)

112

(1)

6 Concluding remarks and future perspectives

113

(1)

Acknowledgments

114

(1)

References

114

(3)

Chapter 4 Evaluation of gas phase: Mechanisms and analyses

117

(44)

Sabyasachi Gaan

1 Introduction

117

(2)

2 Types of gas-phase mechanism

119

(5)

3 Common analytical tools for gas-phase mechanism evaluation

124

(28)

3.1 Thermogravimetry-infrared spectroscopy (TG-FTIR)/mass spectrometry (MS) coupled analysis

124

(5)

3.2 Direct insertion probe-mass spectrometry (DIP-MS)

129

(2)

3.3 Pyrolysis-gas chromatography coupled technique

131

(5)

3.4 Microscale combustion calorimeter (MCC) and its variations

136

(6)

3.5 Cone calorimeter

142

(1)

3.6 Detection of phosphorus-based gas-phase reactive species

143

(9)

4 Concluding remarks and future perspectives

152

(1)

Acknowledgment

153

(1)

References

153

(8)

Chapter 5 Evaluation of gas phase: Smoke and toxicity analysis

161

(30)

Eric Guillaume

1 Introduction

161

(1)

2 Smoke contents

161

(5)

2.1 Gaseous fire effluents

161

(4)

2.2 Solid and liquid fire effluents

165

(1)

3 Analysis of smoke

166

(9)

3.1 Smoke opacity

166

(4)

3.2 Smoke gases' concentrations

170

(5)

4 Impacts of smoke

175

(11)

4.1 Visibility through smoke

175

(1)

4.2 Smoke inhalation

176

(9)

4.3 Environmental effects

185

(1)

5 Conclusions and perspectives

186

(1)

References

186

(5)

Chapter 6 Evaluation of condensed phase: Char/residue analysis

191

(42)

Serge Bourbigot

1 Introduction

191

(2)

2 Fundamentals of char and residue formation

193

(2)

2.1 Ceramization

193

(1)

2.2 Intumescence

193

(1)

2.3 Physical barrier (nanocomposite)

194

(1)

2.4 Charring

195

(1)

3 Chemical characterization: Chemical composition

195

(20)

3.1 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

196

(3)

3.2 Raman spectroscopy

199

(2)

3.3 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)

201

(4)

3.4 X-ray diffraction (XRD]

205

(2)

3.5 Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR)

207

(6)

3.6 Electron spin resonance [ ESR]

213

(2)

4 Microscopy: Morphology of the residue

215

(8)

4.1 Scanning electron microscopy [ SEM]

215

(1)

4.2 Electron probe micro-analysis (EPMA)

216

(1)

4.3 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)

217

(3)

4.4 X-ray computed tomography (CT]

220

(3)

5 Dynamics of char/residue formation

223

(2)

5.1 Viscosity

223

(1)

5.2 Deformation and expansion

224

(1)

6 Conclusions and future trends

225

(1)

References

226

(7)

Chapter 7 Analysis of fire resistance of materials

233

(66)

Thomas Rogaume

Benjamin Batiot

Eric Guillaume

1 Introduction

233

(4)

2 Definitions and application of fire resistance

237

(5)

2.1 Concept of fire resistance

237

(2)

2.2 Fire resistance evaluation---Experimental and modeling characterization

239

(2)

2.3 Influence of fire resistance objectives on human behavior

241

(1)

3 Material applications of fire resistance

242

(6)

3.1 Non-combustible materials

244

(1)

3.2 Combustible materials

245

(3)

4 Conventional approach of fire resistance

248

(18)

4.1 General principles

248

(1)

4.2 Building application

249

(12)

4.3 Transport application

261

(4)

4.4 Outside Europe

265

(1)

4.5 Limits of the conventional approach

266

(1)

5 Performance approach

266

(26)

5.1 Fire dynamics for fire resistance

267

(13)

5.2 Fire analysis applied to structural analysis

280

(3)

5.3 Thermal analysis

283

(1)

5.4 Experimental approach using large-scale and real-scale tests

284

(2)

5.5 Structural fire engineering

286

(6)

6 Conclusions and perspectives

292

(1)

Acknowledgments

293

(1)

References

293

(6)

Chapter 8 Characterization of high-temperature polymers for extreme environments

299

(34)

Hao Wu

Joseph H. Koo

1 Introduction

299

(4)

2 High-temperature polymers

303

(8)

2.1 High-temperature thermosets

303

(5)

2.2 High-temperature thermoplastics

308

(3)

3 Aerothermal ablation testing for high-temperature applications

311

(14)

3.1 Oxyacetylene test bed (OTB)

311

(2)

3.2 Simulated solid rocket motor (SSRM)

313

(2)

3.3 Subscale solid rocket motor (char motor)

315

(1)

3.4 LHMEL test facilities

316

(2)

3.5 ICP test facilities

318

(3)

3.6 Arc jet test facilities

321

(4)

4 Concluding remarks

325

(1)

References

326

(7)

Chapter 9 Correlation between laboratory- and real-scale fire analyses

333

(48)

Laurent Aprin

Laurent Ferry

Frederic Heymes

Rodolphe Sonnier

Pascal Zavaleta

1 Introduction

333

(8)

1.1 From microscale to small scale

336

(3)

1.2 Correlations between small-scale tests

339

(1)

1.3 From small-scale tests to intermediate- or large-scale tests

340

(1)

2 Case study no. 1: Fire behavior of PMMA

341

(13)

2.1 Flammability at microscale

342

(1)

2.2 From small to intermediate scales

342

(10)

2.3 Interactions at large scale

352

(1)

2.4 Conclusion

353

(1)

3 Case study no. 2: Electric cable tray fires

354

(10)

3.1 Assessment of the pHRR of horizontal cable tray fires

356

(5)

3.2 Assessment of the HRR of horizontal cable tray fires

361

(2)

3.3 Conclusion

363

(1)

4 Case study no. 3: Wildfires

364

(10)

4.1 The need for flame retardants research in wildfires science

365

(1)

4.2 Scales in wildfires

366

(1)

4.3 Experimental tests in wildfire research

367

(2)

4.4 Linking small-scale, large-scale, and real-scale tests

369

(1)

4.5 Strategies for upscaling wildfire dynamics

369

(1)

4.6 Rothermel model

370

(1)

4.7 Limitations

371

(2)

4.8 Conclusions

373

(1)

References

374

(7)

Chapter 10 Fire analysis tests from industrial point of view

381

(68)

Eric Guillaume

1 Fundamental principles

381

(1)

2 Scenario-based approach

382

(4)

2.1 Criteria

382

(1)

2.2 Safety objectives

382

(2)

2.3 Materials, products, and systems problematics

384

(1)

2.4 Reference scenarios

385

(1)

3 Building products

386

(15)

3.1 Europe

386

(8)

3.2 North America

394

(4)

3.3 Other building products

398

(3)

4 Cables

401

(5)

4.1 Europe

401

(4)

4.2 Others

405

(1)

5 Electrotechnical products

406

(1)

5.1 Principle

406

(1)

5.2 Main test methods

406

(1)

6 Others

407

(3)

6.1 UL94

407

(1)

6.2 Heat release rate measurements

408

(2)

6.3 Smoke corrosivity

410

(1)

7 Transportation

410

(25)

7.1 Road transportation field

410

(3)

7.2 Rail transportation field

413

(12)

7.3 Marine field

425

(6)

7.4 Aeronautical field

431

(4)

8 Conclusions and perspectives

435

(2)

References

437

(12)

Index

449

Prof. Henri Vahabi received his Ph.D. in Materials Science from the University of Montpellier, France, in 2011. He is currently a Full Professor at the University of Lorraine, France. His research is focused on thermal degradation, flame retardancy of thermosets and thermoplastics, and the development of innovative flame-retardant systems. Prof. Vahabi has authored over 170 articles in ISI-indexed journals and has edited four books. Furthermore, he serves as a committee member of the "Fire Group" within the Chemical Society of France and holds the position of Associate Editor for the Polymers from Renewable Resources journal.

Mohammad Reza Saeb is University Professor at the Department of Polymer Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology. He conceptualizes processing-microstructure-properties-performance interrelationships in polymer blends and nanocomposites. He also visualizes network formation-network degradation correlation in polymer systems by analyzing cure kinetics, thermal degradation kinetics, and flame retardancy. Giulio Malucelli is Professor at the Department of Applied Science and Technology of Politecnico di Torino, Italy. His research interests include the investigation of structure-property relationships, the fire behavior of textiles modified by surface-engineered systems, and the design and exploitation of bio-sourced products as effective flame retardants.

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