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E-raamat: Analyzing Memory

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  • Sari: Analyzing Memory
  • Ilmumisaeg: 30-Oct-2018
  • Kirjastus: MIT Press
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9780262347990
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Analyzing MemorySuurem pilt
  • Formaat: EPUB+DRM
  • Sari: Analyzing Memory
  • Ilmumisaeg: 30-Oct-2018
  • Kirjastus: MIT Press
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9780262347990
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An accessible synthesis of memory research that discusses the creation of memory representations, the processes of storage and retrieval, and the effectiveness of encoding information.

An accessible synthesis of memory research that discusses the creation of memory representations, the processes of storage and retrieval, and the effectiveness of encoding information.

The field of memory research is subdivided into many separate and non-overlapping topic areas that often employ specialized tools and models. This book offers an accessible synthesis of memory research that explores how memory works, how it is organized, and how it changes dynamically. Written by an expert in the field, it can be used by undergraduate and graduate students of psychology and as a reference by researchers who want to fill in gaps in their knowledge. The book focuses on three general topics that cover a vast amount of research in the field: how a memory representation is created, how the cognitive processes of storage and retrieval can be studied and measured, and the process of encoding information and its varying degrees of effectiveness.

Specific subjects addressed include habituation and sensitization, and the neurobiological changes that underlie them; evidence for a cognitive component underlying Pavlovian conditioning; biological constraints on a cognitive model of memory; an information-processing framework for memory; misconceptions about memory, including the static memory myth and the permanent memory myth; model-based measurement of storage and retrieval processes; a critique of the concept of memory strength; the distinction between implicit and explicit memory; and learning and repetition.
Although the writing is accessible to the nonspecialist, the density of information is high. The text avoids jargon, and a glossary defines key terms. The notes expand on technical details and point to interesting related ideas.

Foreword xv
Raymond S. Nickerson
Preface xix
Acknowledgments xxiii
I Building Memory Representations 1(10)
I.1 Introduction to Part I
3(1)
I.2 Levels of Scientific Inquiry
3(2)
I.3 Mathematical Models and the Study of Memory
5(3)
I.3.1 Some Features of a Good Model
6(2)
I.3.2 Scientific Hypotheses and Models Are Approximations
8(1)
I.4 Organization of Part I
8(3)
1 Habituation and Sensitization 11(34)
1.1 Overview of the
Chapter
11(1)
1.2 Introduction
11(3)
1.2.1 Distinguishing Habituation from Other Phenomena
12(2)
1.3 Habituation and Sensitization Effects
14(6)
1.3.1 Groves-Thompson Model
18(2)
1.4 Neural Model for Habituation/Sensitization
20(8)
1.4.1 Basic Neuron Anatomy
20(3)
1.4.2 Kandel's Model for Habituation/Sensitization
23(5)
1.5 The Curious Case of the Stentor
28(1)
1.6 System Model for Habituation and Sensitization
29(2)
1.7 A Mathematical Representation for ζk
31(10)
1.7.1 Fundamental Habituation Model
31(4)
1.7.2 Fundamental Sensitization Model
35(1)
1.7.3 Spontaneous Recovery Model
35(2)
1.7.4 The Strength Threshold
37(1)
1.7.5 The Effect of Similarity
38(1)
1.7.6 Emotional State
39(1)
1.7.7 Differences with Other Models
40(1)
1.8 Summarizing Nonassociative Memory
41(4)
2 Associative Conditioning 45(40)
2.1 Overview of the
Chapter
45(1)
2.2 Elementary Conditioning Definitions
46(5)
2.2.1 Classical Conditioning: Operations and Terminology
46(3)
2.2.2 Operant Conditioning: Operations and Terminology
49(2)
2.3 The Information-Theory Challenge
51(1)
2.3.1 Blocking Effect
51(1)
2.3.2 Zero-Contingency Effect
52(1)
2.4 Rescorla-Wagner Model
52(7)
2.4.1 Problems with the Rescorla-Wagner Model
54(5)
2.5 How Cognitive Is Pavlovian Conditioning?
59(15)
2.5.1 The Temporal-Learning Hypothesis
59(1)
2.5.2 Issue of Awareness for Pavlovian Conditioning
60(1)
2.5.3 Pavlovian Conditioning and General Anesthesia
61(3)
2.5.4 Critique of Research on Subliminal Conditioning
64(6)
2.5.5 Can Postacquisition Conditioning Become Unconscious?
70(4)
2.6 Pavlovian and Instrumental Comparisons
74(8)
2.7 Concluding Comment and
Chapter Summary
82(3)
3 Memory: Biology to Cognition 85(42)
3.1 Overview of the
Chapter
85(1)
3.2 The Biological Factors of Trace Storage
85(10)
3.2.1 Specialized Computations
86(2)
3.2.2 Memory and the Hippocampus
88(4)
3.2.3 Retrograde Amnesia
92(1)
3.2.4 Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) and Depression (LTD)
93(2)
3.2.5 Memory and Neurogenesis
95(1)
3.3 Emerging Cognitive Theories of Forgetting
95(23)
3.3.1 Atkinson-Shiffrin Model and Working Memory
96(6)
3.3.2 Forgetting for the SAM and REM Models
102(1)
3.3.3 Consolidation Theory: Early Form
103(2)
3.3.4 Classical Interference Theory
105(4)
3.3.5 Consolidation Theory Revival
109(4)
3.3.6 Reconsolidation Theory
113(2)
3.3.7 Two-Trace Hazard Model
115(3)
3.4 Memory Types
118(6)
3.5
Chapter Summary
124(3)
4 Information-Processing Framework 127(26)
4.1
Chapter Overview
127(1)
4.2 Propositional Encoding
127(7)
4.2.1 Framework for Propositions and Concepts
128(6)
4.3 Temporal/Feature-Binding Memory Framework
134(2)
4.4 Syntactic-Pattern Recognition
136(8)
4.4.1 Is Visual-Pattern Memory a Feature-Space Model?
136(1)
4.4.2 A Divergent Approach: Syntactic-Pattern Recognition
137(1)
4.4.3 Is There Merit to Syntactic-Pattern Recognition?
138(6)
4.5 How Much Is Remembered?
144(6)
4.6 Memory Is Encoded Information
150(1)
4.7 Summary of
Chapter
151(2)
5 Memory: Myths and Truths 153(26)
5.1
Chapter Overview
153(1)
5.2 A Few Misconceptions about Memory
153(17)
5.2.1 Myth of Static Memory
153(1)
5.2.2 Myth of the Recovery of Lost Information via Hypnosis
154(3)
5.2.3 The Myth of Videotape Memory
157(5)
5.2.4 The Penfield Hypothesis of Recovered Memories
162(1)
5.2.5 Myth of Permanent Memory
163(7)
5.3 Content-Addressable Memory
170(7)
5.4 Overview of Part I
177(2)
II The Measurement of Memory 179(150)
Introduction to Part II
181(2)
6 Historical Lessons
183(18)
6.1
Chapter Overview
183(1)
6.2 Introduction to Physical Measurement
183(1)
6.3 Brief History of Temperature Measurement
184(3)
6.4 Measurement Approaches Not Taken
187(9)
6.4.1 Multiple-Item Test Theory
187(2)
6.4.2 Magnitude Estimation
189(2)
6.4.3 Abstract Measurement Theory
191(1)
6.4.4 Unsuitability of Experimental Double Disassociation
192(4)
6.5 Rationale for Model-Based Measurement
196(3)
6.6
Chapter Summary
199(2)
7 Measuring Storage and Retrieval
201(60)
7.1
Chapter Overview
201(1)
7.2 Introduction to Storage-Retrieval Measurement
201(1)
7.3 Chechile and Meyer (1976) Task
202(2)
7.4 Recall Tests: Defining Storage and Retrieval
204(3)
7.4.1 Defining Sufficient Storage as a Probability Mixture Rate
204(1)
7.4.2 Defining Retrieval for the Recall Task
205(2)
7.5 Storage-Retrieval Separation
207(9)
7.5.1 Issues for Proper Recognition Protocols
207(2)
7.5.2 Generic Recognition Trees for the Chechile-Meyer Task
209(2)
7.5.3 Chechile (2004) Models
211(5)
7.6 Example: Letter-Shadowing Experiment
216(10)
7.6.1 Introduction and Method of Experiment
216(1)
7.6.2 Overall Categorical Data and Confidence Analysis
217(1)
7.6.3 Is the 6P Model Applicable?
218(1)
7.6.4 Model 7B versus Chechile and Meyer (1976) Model 3
218(1)
7.6.5 Individual Differences and Further Model 7B Analyses
219(3)
7.6.6 Statistical Issues for Model Estimation
222(3)
7.6.7 Discussion of the Letter-Shadowing Condition
225(1)
7.7 Validation Studies for the 6P and 7B Models
226(10)
7.7.1 Independent Latent Measures
226(2)
7.7.2 Search Time Study
228(1)
7.7.3 Acoustic Similarity Effect
229(3)
7.7.4 Paired-Associate Learning
232(2)
7.7.5 Monetary Incentives and Guessing
234(2)
7.8 Population Differences for Storage and Retrieval
236(12)
7.8.1 Developmental Changes in Memory
236(1)
7.8.2 Memory Deficits and Developmental Dyslexia
237(3)
7.8.3 Memory Assessment of Intellectually Disabled Adults
240(2)
7.8.4 Dynamic Memory Changes with Korsakoff Patients
242(3)
7.8.5 Drug Effects beyond State Dependency
245(3)
7.9 Storage and Retrieval for Recall-Based Tasks
248(7)
7.9.1 The Greeno et al. (1978) Model
248(2)
7.9.2 The Rouder and Batchelder (1998) Model
250(4)
7.9.3 The Batchelder and Riefer (1980) Model
254(1)
7.10 General Discussion and Summary
255(1)
Appendix: Multinominal-Processing Tree (MPT) Models
256(5)
8 What Does Memory Strength Mean?
261(32)
8.1
Chapter Overview
261(1)
8.2 The Problem of Measuring Memory Strength
261(2)
8.3 The Basic Signal-Detection Representation
263(7)
8.4 The Problem with Defining Strength
270(6)
8.5 The Problem of Target-Foil Similarity
276(3)
8.6 The Problem of the Mirror Effect
279(2)
8.7 The Problem of Foil Mixtures
281(7)
8.8 The Problem of Ambiguous ROC Data
288(2)
8.9 Summary Remarks about Memory Strength
290(3)
9 Storage-Retrieval: Animal Model
293(14)
9.1
Chapter Overview
293(1)
9.2 Storage-Retrieval Measurement for Animals
293(8)
9.3 Validation Studies for the Animal Model
301(2)
9.3.1 Encoding Level
301(1)
9.3.2 Retention Interval Effect
302(1)
9.4
Chapter Summary and Discussion
303(1)
Appendix: Parameter Estimates for the Animal Model
304(3)
10 Implicit-Explicit Separation
307(22)
10.1
Chapter Overview
307(1)
10.2 Implicit-Explicit Storage Measurement
307(1)
10.3 The Extended Process-Dissociation Model
308(3)
10.4 Extended Process-Dissociation Critique
311(2)
10.5 The IES Model
313(7)
10.6 Validation Evidence for the IES Model
320(5)
10.6.1 Encoding Time Study
320(1)
10.6.2 Divided Viewing
321(2)
10.6.3 Effect of Retention Interval
323(2)
10.7 Summary: Explicit-Implicit Memory Measures
325(1)
10.8 Summary for Part II
325(4)
III Factors Affecting Encoding Quality 329(154)
Introduction to Part III
331(2)
11 Repetition Effects
333(42)
11.1
Chapter Overview
333(1)
11.2 The Learning Curve
333(1)
11.3 Is Learning Incremental or All-or-None?
334(18)
11.3.1 The Problem
334(1)
11.3.2 Continuity Theory or Incremental Strength Theory
334(4)
11.3.3 All-or-None Theory
338(1)
11.3.4 The Debate
339(3)
11.3.5 Dynamic Encoding-Forgetting (DEF) Model
342(10)
11.4 Is Total Study Time Sufficient?
352(9)
11.4.1 Presentation Time and List Length Trade-off
352(1)
11.4.2 The Murdock (1960) Learning Function
353(1)
11.4.3 Hazard Functions for Learning
354(5)
11.4.4 Total-Time Hypothesis and Its Disconfirmation
359(2)
11.5 Testing Effects
361(5)
11.6 Effect of Spacing
366(6)
11.7 Summary of Repetition Effects
372(3)
12 Encoding and Context Factors
375(20)
12.1
Chapter Overview
375(1)
12.2 Meaningfulness and Ease of Encoding
375(2)
12.3 Levels of Processing
377(4)
12.4 Contextual Factors
381(11)
12.4.1 Transfer-Appropriate Processing
381(2)
12.4.2 Stimulus Generalization and Encoding Specificity
383(5)
12.4.3 The Effects of the Incidental Context
388(2)
12.4.4 Music-Dependent Memory
390(1)
12.4.5 Drug State-Dependent Context
391(1)
12.5
Chapter Summary
392(3)
13 Generation and Elaboration
395(66)
13.1
Chapter Overview
395(1)
13.2 The Effect of Generative Encoding
395(16)
13.2.1 The Contours of a Phenomenon
395(7)
13.2.2 Explaining the Generation Effect
402(9)
13.3 Other Generation-Like Encoding Effects
411(5)
13.3.1 Aha Effect
411(1)
13.3.2 Self-Choice Effect
412(4)
13.4 Generative Learning in Education
416(2)
13.5 The Enactment Effect
418(4)
13.6 Distinctiveness and the Production Effect
422(12)
13.6.1 Distinctiveness Defined as a Contrast
423(1)
13.6.2 Problems with Distinctiveness
424(2)
13.6.3 Possible Storage Factor for Distinctive Items
426(3)
13.6.4 Possible Retrieval Factor for Distinctive Items
429(1)
13.6.5 How Should Distinctiveness Be Used?
430(1)
13.6.6 The Production Effect
431(3)
13.7 Self-Reference and Survival Effects
434(10)
13.7.1 Self-Reference Effect
435(2)
13.7.2 Survival Effect
437(1)
13.7.3 Philosophical Background
438(1)
13.7.4 Animal Ethology
439(1)
13.7.5 Neurobiological Hardware for Language and Memory
439(1)
13.7.6 Garcia Effect
440(1)
13.7.7 Survival Effect in List Learning
441(3)
13.8 Organizational Factors
444(9)
13.8.1 Evidence of Spontaneous Organization
446(2)
13.8.2 Subjective Organization
448(5)
13.9 Mnemonic Techniques and Imagery
453(6)
13.9.1 The Method of Loci
454(1)
13.9.2 The Substitution Mnemonic
455(1)
13.9.3 Rhyme and Peg-Word Mnemonics
456(1)
13.9.4 Tips for Face-Person Associations
457(1)
13.9.5 Mnemonic Methods in Context
458(1)
13.10
Chapter Summary
459(2)
14 Mood and Emotional Factors
461(22)
14.1
Chapter Overview
461(1)
14.2 The Question of Mood-Dependent Memory
461(3)
14.3 Effects of Arousal and Emotion on Encoding
464(4)
14.3.1 The Questionable Veracity of the Yerkes-Dodson Law
464(4)
14.4 The Easterbrook Hypothesis
468(1)
14.5 Attentional Spotlight, Cognition, and Emotion
469(1)
14.6 Neural Processing of Emotional Stimuli
470(1)
14.7 Negative Affect: The Weapon Focus
471(1)
14.8 Memory of Traumatic Experiences
472(1)
14.9 Positive Affect: Attentional Broadening?
473(1)
14.10 Postencoding Stress and Memory
474(5)
14.10.1 Epinephrine and Memory
475(3)
14.10.2 Delayed Cortisol and Memory Recall
478(1)
14.11 Summary of Affect and Memory
479(1)
14.12 Summary of Part III
480(3)
Epilogue 483(2)
Glossary 485(38)
Bibliography 523(58)
Index 581
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