Preface |
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xv | |
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xix | |
Foreword |
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xxiii | |
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History of Cardiac Pacing |
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3 | (12) |
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Earl Bakken: One Version of the First Pacemaker Story |
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3 | (1) |
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The Long List of Inventions and Observations that Led to the Pacemaker |
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4 | (1) |
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Pulse Theory and Observations that Bradycardia Leads to Syncope |
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4 | (1) |
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5 | (1) |
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6 | (6) |
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7 | (1) |
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8 | (1) |
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8 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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Implantable Cardiac Defibrillators |
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10 | (1) |
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10 | (2) |
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12 | (1) |
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12 | (3) |
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History of Defibrillation |
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15 | (26) |
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Introduction: Defibrillation and Its Creators |
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15 | (2) |
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Mysteries of Early Research: Abdilgaard's Chickens and Kite's Successes |
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17 | (5) |
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Elucidating the Mechanism, Imagining the Cure |
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22 | (4) |
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Defibrillation: From Russia and the Soviet Block |
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26 | (4) |
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Defibrillation: AC to DC, in America and Beyond |
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30 | (5) |
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35 | (3) |
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38 | (3) |
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Ventricular Fibrillation: A Historical Perspective |
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41 | (22) |
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41 | (1) |
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Concepts, Instruments, and Institutions: Nineteenth-Century Legacy |
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42 | (2) |
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The Clinic and the Laboratory |
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44 | (3) |
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Ventricular Fibrillation: Experimental Evidence and Basic Concepts, 1880s--1920s |
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47 | (5) |
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From Wiggers to Moe: The Multiple Wavelet Hypothesis |
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52 | (1) |
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Modern Concepts of Ventricular Fibrillation |
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53 | (1) |
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54 | (1) |
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54 | (9) |
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Part II Theory of Electric Stimulation and Defibrillation |
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The Bidomain Theory of Pacing |
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63 | (22) |
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63 | (1) |
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63 | (1) |
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Make and Break Excitation |
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64 | (7) |
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71 | (5) |
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76 | (2) |
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Effect of Potassium on Pacing |
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78 | (1) |
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Time Dependence of the Anodal and Cathodal Refractory Periods |
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79 | (2) |
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81 | (1) |
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81 | (1) |
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81 | (4) |
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Bidomain Model of Defibrillation |
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85 | (26) |
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85 | (1) |
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Advancements Leading to the Development of the Bidomain Model of Defibrillation |
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86 | (1) |
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Bidomain Equations and Numerical Approaches for Large-Scale Simulations in Shock-Induced Arrhythmogenesis and Defibrillation |
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87 | (7) |
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88 | (1) |
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Computational Considerations |
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89 | (1) |
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90 | (1) |
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91 | (3) |
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Models of the Heart in Vulnerability and Defibrillation Studies |
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94 | (2) |
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Description of Myocardial Geometry and Fiber Architecture |
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94 | (1) |
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Representation of Ionic Currents and Membrane Electroporation |
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95 | (1) |
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Shock Electrodes and Waveforms |
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95 | (1) |
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Arrhythmia Induction with an Electric Shock and Defibrillation |
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96 | (1) |
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Postshock Activity in the Ventricles |
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97 | (7) |
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VEP Induced by the Shock in the 3D Volume of the Ventricles |
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97 | (2) |
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Postshock Activations in the 3D Volume of the Ventricles |
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99 | (1) |
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100 | (2) |
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Shock-Induced Phase Singularities and Filaments |
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102 | (1) |
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Induction of Arrhythmia with Biphasic Shocks |
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102 | (2) |
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104 | (1) |
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105 | (1) |
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105 | (6) |
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The Generalized Activating Function |
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111 | (22) |
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111 | (1) |
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112 | (2) |
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The Generalized Activating Function |
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114 | (2) |
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116 | (8) |
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124 | (2) |
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125 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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126 | (4) |
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130 | (3) |
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Theory of Electroporation |
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133 | (32) |
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Concept of Electroporation |
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133 | (1) |
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Physical Background of Electroporation |
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134 | (6) |
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134 | (2) |
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136 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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Postshock Pore Shrinkage and Coarsening |
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138 | (1) |
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139 | (1) |
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Mathematical Modeling of Electroporation |
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140 | (4) |
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Advection-Diffusion Equation |
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140 | (1) |
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Asymptotic Model of Electroporation |
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141 | (1) |
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Current-Voltage Relationship of a Pore |
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142 | (2) |
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Example of the Electroporation Process |
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144 | (7) |
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Governing Equation for the Transmembrane Potential |
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144 | (1) |
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145 | (1) |
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145 | (1) |
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146 | (2) |
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Postshock Pore Shrinkage Phase |
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148 | (1) |
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149 | (1) |
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Effects of Shock Strength |
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149 | (2) |
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151 | (2) |
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153 | (1) |
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153 | (1) |
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Appendix 1: Parameters of the Electroporation Model |
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154 | (1) |
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Appendix 2: Numerical Implementation |
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155 | (1) |
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156 | (9) |
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Part III Electrode Mapping of Defibrillation |
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Critical Points and the Upper Limit of Vulnerability for Defibrillation |
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165 | (24) |
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165 | (2) |
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Mechanisms by which Shocks Induce VF |
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167 | (2) |
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The Field-Recovery Critical Point |
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169 | (11) |
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Inconsistencies with the Field-Recovery Critical Hypothesis for Defibrillation |
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180 | (2) |
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The Virtual Electrode Critical Point |
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182 | (3) |
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Other Possible Mechanisms for Defibrillation |
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185 | (1) |
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185 | (1) |
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185 | (4) |
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The Role of Shock-Induced Nonregenerative Depolarizations |
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189 | (32) |
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Brief Historical Perspectives |
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189 | (5) |
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The Era of Computerized Cardiac Mapping: New Insights |
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194 | (2) |
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Initiation of VF by Electrical Stimuli |
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195 | (1) |
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Different Proposed Hypotheses of Defibrillation |
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196 | (15) |
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The Graded Response Hypothesis of Fibrillation and Defibrillation |
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199 | (1) |
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Graded Response Characteristics |
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199 | (12) |
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Conclusions and Future Directions |
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211 | (1) |
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212 | (1) |
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212 | (9) |
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Part IV Optical Mapping of Stimulation and Defibrillation |
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Mechanisms of Isolated Cell Stimulation |
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221 | (34) |
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221 | (1) |
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Transmembrane Potential (Vm) Responses of an Isolated Cell |
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222 | (15) |
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Theoretical Framework of Field Stimulation |
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222 | (3) |
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Experimental Responses During Field Stimulation |
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225 | (11) |
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Single Cells Versus Tissue Responses: Similarities and Differences |
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236 | (1) |
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Field-Induced Responses of an Isolated Cell-Pair: Sawtooth Effect |
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237 | (6) |
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Theoretical Treatment of Sawtooth Effect |
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238 | (1) |
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Experimental Measurement of Sawtooth Effect |
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239 | (2) |
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Sawtooth Effect's Role in Tissue: ``Fact or Fantasy'' |
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241 | (2) |
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Effect of Electric Fields on Intracellular Calcium |
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243 | (6) |
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Measurement of Intracellular Ca2+ Transients Using Fluorescent Probes |
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244 | (1) |
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Effect of Field Stimulation on Intracellular Ca2+ Transients at Rest |
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244 | (4) |
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Effect of Field Stimulation on Intracellular Ca2+ Transients During Plateau |
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248 | (1) |
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Implications of Field-Induced Ca2+ Gradients |
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248 | (1) |
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249 | (1) |
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249 | (6) |
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The Role of Microscopic Tissue Structure in Defibrillation |
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255 | (28) |
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255 | (1) |
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Possible Mechanisms of Intramural Shock-Induced Vm Changes |
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256 | (2) |
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The Role of Microscopic Tissue Structure in the Shock Effects: Experiments in Cell Cultures |
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258 | (12) |
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The Role of Cell Boundaries in Shock Effects |
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259 | (2) |
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The Role of Intercellular Clefts in the Shock Effects |
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261 | (2) |
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Shock-Induced Δ Vm in Cell Strands |
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263 | (7) |
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Measurements of Intramural Shock-Induced Δ Vm in Wedge Preparations |
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270 | (5) |
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Comparison between Microscopic and Macroscopic Δ Vm Measurements |
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275 | (2) |
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277 | (1) |
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277 | (6) |
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Virtual Electrode Theory of Pacing |
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283 | (48) |
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283 | (1) |
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Virtual Electrodes during Unipolar Stimulation of Cardiac Tissue |
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284 | (6) |
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Anode and Cathode Make and Break Excitation |
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290 | (3) |
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Strength--Interval Curves |
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293 | (3) |
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296 | (5) |
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301 | (5) |
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The No-Response Phenomenon and the Upper Limit of Vulnerability |
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306 | (1) |
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Influence of Physical Electrodes During a Shock |
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306 | (1) |
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The Effect of Fiber Curvature on Stimulation of Cardiac Tissue |
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307 | (3) |
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310 | (1) |
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Averaging over Depth During Optical Mapping |
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311 | (1) |
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Boundary Conditions and the Bidomain Model |
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312 | (1) |
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The Magnetic Field Produced by Cardiac Tissue |
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313 | (2) |
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315 | (1) |
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316 | (1) |
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317 | (14) |
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The Virtual Electrode Hypothesis of Defibrillation |
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331 | (26) |
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331 | (4) |
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Historical Overview of Defibrillation Therapy |
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331 | (1) |
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332 | (1) |
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Fluorescent Optical Mapping |
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333 | (1) |
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Virtual Electrodes and the Activating Function |
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334 | (1) |
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Mechanisms of Defibrillation |
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335 | (9) |
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Theories of Defibrillation |
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335 | (1) |
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Virtual Electrode Hypothesis of Defibrillation: The Role of Deexcitation and Reexcitation |
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336 | (1) |
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Virtual Electrode-Induced Phase Singularity Mechanism |
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337 | (3) |
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Chirality of Shock-Induced Reentry Predicted by VEP Not the Repolarization Gradient |
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340 | (3) |
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Shock-Induced VEP as a Mechanism for Defibrillation Failure |
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343 | (1) |
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The Role of Electroporation |
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344 | (1) |
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Clinical Implications of the Virtual Electrode Hypothesis of Defibrillation |
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344 | (3) |
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The Role of Virtual Electrodes and Shock Polarity |
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344 | (1) |
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345 | (2) |
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Toward Low-Energy Defibrillation |
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347 | (4) |
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351 | (1) |
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351 | (6) |
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Simultaneous Optical and Electrical Recordings |
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357 | (24) |
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Introduction to Electrooptical Measurements |
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357 | (1) |
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358 | (1) |
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Ratiometric Optical Mapping |
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359 | (1) |
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Role of the Second Spatial Derivative of the Extracellular Potential in Field Stimulation |
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360 | (4) |
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Stimulatory Effects of a Spatial Variation of Extracellular Conductance in an Electric Field |
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364 | (1) |
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Effect of Unipolar Stimulation in the Tissue under the Electrode |
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365 | (3) |
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Electrooptical Mapping of Cardiac Excitation |
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368 | (1) |
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Method of Electrooptical Mapping |
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369 | (1) |
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Electrooptical Mapping of Epicardially Paced Beats and Sinus Beats |
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370 | (5) |
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Electrooptical Mapping of Fibrillation |
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375 | (3) |
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378 | (1) |
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378 | (3) |
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Optical Mapping of Multisite Ventricular Fibrillation Synchronization |
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381 | (20) |
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Pacing to Terminate Ventricular Fibrillation |
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382 | (1) |
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New Opportunities in Improving Ventricular Defibrillation |
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382 | (1) |
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Optical Mapping of Multisite Synchronization of Ventricular Fibrillation |
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383 | (4) |
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Optical Recording-Guided Pacing to Create Functional Block during VF |
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387 | (2) |
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Improvement of Defibrillation Efficacy with Synchronized Multisite Pacing |
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389 | (4) |
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393 | (1) |
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393 | (8) |
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The Bidomain Model of Cardiac Tissue: From Microscale to Macroscale |
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401 | (22) |
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401 | (2) |
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Microscopic Modeling Cardiac Tissue |
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403 | (1) |
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Macroscopic Modeling Cardiac Tissue |
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404 | (2) |
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406 | (4) |
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Bidomain Model of Cardiac Tissue |
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410 | (1) |
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Bidomain Properties at the Tissue Level |
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411 | (5) |
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Bidomain Properties at the Heart Level |
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416 | (1) |
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417 | (1) |
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418 | (5) |
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Multielectrode Mapping of the Heart |
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423 | (18) |
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423 | (1) |
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424 | (1) |
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Determining Activation Time |
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425 | (7) |
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432 | (5) |
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437 | (1) |
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438 | (3) |
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The Role of Electroporation |
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441 | (18) |
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Role of Electroporation in Defibrillation |
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441 | (5) |
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Contribution of Electroporation to Optically Recorded Cellular Responses |
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446 | (2) |
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Electroporation Assessment by Membrane Impermeable Dye Diffusion |
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448 | (3) |
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Role of Electroporation in Pacing |
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451 | (1) |
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Irreversible Electroporation in Cardiac Surgery |
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451 | (1) |
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451 | (1) |
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452 | (7) |
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Part VI Implications for Implantable Devices |
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Lessons for the Clinical Implant |
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459 | (34) |
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Electrical Parameters of Defibrillation Waveforms |
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459 | (2) |
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Parameters that Influence Defibrillation |
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459 | (1) |
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Parameters that Influence ICD Design |
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459 | (2) |
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Principles of Capacitive Discharge Waveforms |
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461 | (3) |
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461 | (2) |
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Stored Versus Delivered Energy |
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463 | (1) |
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Optimizing Waveforms with the RC Network Model |
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464 | (1) |
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Minimizing Shock Energy Without Electronic Constraints |
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465 | (3) |
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The Predicted Optimal Monophasic Shock |
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465 | (3) |
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The Predicted Optimal Biphasic Shock |
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468 | (1) |
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Optimizing Capacitive Discharge Waveforms |
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468 | (10) |
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Optimizing Duration: Monophasic Shock and First Phase of Biphasic Shock with a Fixed Capacitance |
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468 | (3) |
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471 | (1) |
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Optimizing Phase Two of the Biphasic Waveform |
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472 | (1) |
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Truncation by Duration Versus Truncation by Tilt |
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473 | (5) |
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478 | (2) |
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Waveforms in Commercially Available ICDs |
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480 | (3) |
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Other Considerations in Optimizing Waveforms |
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483 | (1) |
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The Misunderstood Superior Vena Cava Coil |
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484 | (1) |
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485 | (1) |
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486 | (7) |
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Resonance and Feedback Strategies for Low-Voltage Defibrillation |
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493 | (18) |
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493 | (1) |
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Localized Stimulation: Induced Drift of Spiral Waves |
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493 | (2) |
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Delocalized Stimulation: Resonant Drift of Spiral Waves |
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495 | (3) |
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Feedback-Controlled Resonant Drift |
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498 | (3) |
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Three-Dimensional Aspects |
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501 | (1) |
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502 | (5) |
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507 | (1) |
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507 | (1) |
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508 | (1) |
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508 | (3) |
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Pacing Control of Local Cardiac Dynamics |
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511 | (14) |
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511 | (1) |
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511 | (4) |
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515 | (6) |
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515 | (5) |
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Conduction Velocity Alternans |
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520 | (1) |
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521 | (4) |
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Advanced Methods for Assessing the Stability and Control of Alternans |
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525 | (26) |
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525 | (3) |
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528 | (3) |
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Characterization and Control of Alterans in Isolated Cardiac Myocytes |
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531 | (9) |
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Application of the Eigenmode Method |
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531 | (3) |
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The Ion Channel Mechanism Underlying Alternans |
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534 | (3) |
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Development and Testing of a Control Algorithm |
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537 | (3) |
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Characterization and Control of Spiral Wave Instabilities |
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540 | (3) |
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Nature of Spiral Wave Instabilities |
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540 | (2) |
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Elimination of Alternans in a Rotating Spiral Wave |
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542 | (1) |
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Summary and Implications for Treatment of Cardiac Arrhythmias |
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543 | (1) |
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Appendix: Mathematical Details |
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544 | (3) |
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547 | (4) |
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The Future of the Implantable Defibrillator |
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551 | (20) |
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551 | (2) |
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Reduction of Ventricular Oversensing |
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551 | (1) |
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Active SVT-VT Discrimination |
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552 | (1) |
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Hemodynamic Sensors for ICDs |
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552 | (1) |
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553 | (6) |
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555 | (2) |
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557 | (2) |
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559 | (1) |
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Novel Waveform Strategies |
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559 | (3) |
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Defibrillation Threshold Reduction |
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559 | (2) |
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Cardioversion Pain Reduction |
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561 | (1) |
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562 | (1) |
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Novel Packaging Strategies |
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562 | (1) |
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562 | (1) |
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Percutaneous, Fully Transvenous ICD |
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563 | (1) |
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563 | (1) |
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563 | (8) |
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Lessons Learned from Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators Recordings |
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571 | (44) |
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571 | (1) |
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572 | (3) |
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Interpretation of ICD Recordings |
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573 | (2) |
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Lessons Learned from ICD Treatment of Ventricular Tachyarrhythmias |
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575 | (16) |
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Incidence of Ventricular Tachyarrhythmias |
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575 | (3) |
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Therapy Efficacy and Failure Modes |
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578 | (1) |
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Therapy Efficacy: Defibrillation |
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579 | (2) |
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Therapy Efficacy: Cardioversion |
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581 | (2) |
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Therapy Efficacy: Antitachycardia Pacing |
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583 | (3) |
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Investigating the Causes of Tachyarrhythmia |
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586 | (5) |
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Lessons Learned from Inappropriately Treated ICD Episodes |
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591 | (6) |
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Inappropriate Detection Due to Oversensing |
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591 | (2) |
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Inappropriate Detection and Therapy Due to Nonsustained VT/VF |
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593 | (1) |
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Inappropriate Detection Due to Supraventricular Tachycardia |
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593 | (4) |
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Inappropriate ICD Therapies and Changing Patient Population |
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597 | (1) |
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Lessons Learned from Appropriately Treated AT/AF Episodes |
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|
597 | (7) |
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Atrial Tachyarrhythmia Detection and Termination Accuracy |
|
|
597 | (3) |
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Efficacy of Device-Based Therapies for AT/AF |
|
|
600 | (1) |
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AT/AF Therapy Efficacy: Impact of Early Recurrence of Atrial Fibrillation |
|
|
600 | (1) |
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Atrial ATP Therapy Efficacy |
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|
600 | (3) |
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Atrial Defibrillation Shock Efficacy |
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603 | (1) |
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604 | (1) |
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604 | (11) |
Index |
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615 | |