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1 | (16) |
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Clinical Questions and Clinical Epidemiology |
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2 | (1) |
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2 | (1) |
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The Scientific Basis for Clinical Medicine |
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3 | (2) |
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5 | (7) |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (4) |
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10 | (1) |
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The Effects of Bias and Chance Are Cumulative |
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10 | (1) |
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Internal and External Validity |
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11 | (1) |
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Information and Decisions |
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12 | (1) |
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Organization of This Book |
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12 | (5) |
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17 | (14) |
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Are Words Suitable Substitutes for Numbers? |
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17 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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Prevalence and Incidence in Relation to Time |
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19 | (1) |
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Relationships Among Prevalence, Incidence, and Duration of Disease |
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19 | (1) |
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20 | (1) |
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Studies of Prevalence and Incidence |
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20 | (2) |
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21 | (1) |
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21 | (1) |
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21 | (1) |
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Incidence Density (Person-Years) |
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21 | (1) |
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Basic Elements of Frequency Studies |
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22 | (3) |
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What Is a Case? Defining the Numerator |
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22 | (2) |
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What Is the Population? Defining the Denominator |
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24 | (1) |
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Does the Study Sample Represent the Population? |
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25 | (1) |
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Distribution of Disease by Time, Place, and Person |
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25 | (2) |
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25 | (1) |
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26 | (1) |
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26 | (1) |
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Uses of Prevalence Studies |
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27 | (4) |
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What Are Prevalence Studies Good for? |
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27 | (1) |
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What Are Prevalence Studies Not Particularly Good for? |
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28 | (3) |
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31 | (22) |
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32 | (1) |
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32 | (1) |
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32 | (1) |
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32 | (1) |
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Performance of Measurements |
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33 | (3) |
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33 | (1) |
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34 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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36 | (3) |
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Variation Resulting from Measurement |
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36 | (1) |
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Variation Resulting from Biologic Differences |
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36 | (1) |
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37 | (1) |
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38 | (1) |
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39 | (2) |
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39 | (1) |
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39 | (1) |
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39 | (2) |
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41 | (7) |
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42 | (1) |
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Abnormal = Biologic Dysfunction |
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43 | (2) |
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45 | (2) |
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Abnormal = Treating the Condition Leads to a Better Clinical Outcome |
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47 | (1) |
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48 | (5) |
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53 | (25) |
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53 | (1) |
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The Accuracy of a Test Result |
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54 | (1) |
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55 | (1) |
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Sensitivity and Specificity |
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55 | (4) |
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55 | (1) |
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55 | (2) |
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57 | (1) |
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Trade-Offs Between Sensitivity and Specificity |
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57 | (1) |
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The Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) Curve |
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58 | (1) |
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Studies of Diagnostic Tests |
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59 | (5) |
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Spectrum of Patients---the Study Population |
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60 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
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62 | (2) |
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64 | (4) |
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64 | (1) |
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Determinants of Predictive Value |
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65 | (1) |
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Estimating Prevalence (Pretest Probability) |
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66 | (2) |
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Implications for Interpreting the Medical Literature |
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68 | (1) |
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68 | (3) |
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68 | (1) |
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69 | (1) |
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69 | (1) |
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Why Use Likelihood Ratios? |
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69 | (1) |
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Calculating Likelihood Ratios |
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70 | (1) |
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71 | (7) |
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72 | (1) |
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Clinical Prediction Rules |
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73 | (1) |
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74 | (1) |
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74 | (1) |
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Assumption of Independence |
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74 | (4) |
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78 | (14) |
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79 | (1) |
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79 | (1) |
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80 | (2) |
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80 | (1) |
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Immediate Versus Distant Causes |
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80 | (1) |
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Common Exposure to Risk Factors |
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80 | (1) |
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81 | (1) |
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81 | (1) |
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Multiple Causes and Multiple Effects |
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81 | (1) |
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Risk Factors May or May Not Be Causal |
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81 | (1) |
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82 | (1) |
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Combining Multiple Factors |
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82 | (1) |
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Evaluating Risk Prediction Tools |
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83 | (3) |
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83 | (2) |
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85 | (1) |
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86 | (1) |
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86 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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Assessing Models in Clinical Practice |
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87 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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Clinical Uses of Risk Factors, Prognostic Factors, and Risk Prediction Tools |
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88 | (4) |
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Risk Prediction and Pretest Probability for Diagnostic Testing |
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88 | (1) |
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Using Risk Factors to Choose Treatment |
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89 | (1) |
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Risk Stratification for Screening Programs |
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89 | (1) |
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Removing Risk Factors to Prevent Disease |
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89 | (3) |
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6 Risk: Exposure to Disease |
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92 | (19) |
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92 | (6) |
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When Experiments Are Not Possible or Ethical |
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92 | (1) |
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93 | (1) |
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93 | (1) |
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Prospective and Historical Cohort Studies |
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94 | (2) |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Cohort Studies |
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96 | (2) |
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Ways to Express and Compare Risk |
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98 | (3) |
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99 | (1) |
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99 | (1) |
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99 | (1) |
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Interpreting Attributable and Relative Risk |
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99 | (1) |
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100 | (1) |
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Taking Other Variables into Account |
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101 | (1) |
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101 | (1) |
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Simple Descriptions of Risk |
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101 | (1) |
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102 | (1) |
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102 | (1) |
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102 | (1) |
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102 | (1) |
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103 | (3) |
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103 | (1) |
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103 | (1) |
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104 | (1) |
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104 | (1) |
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105 | (1) |
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105 | (1) |
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Overall Strategy for Control of Confounding |
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106 | (1) |
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Observational Studies and Cause |
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106 | (1) |
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106 | (1) |
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107 | (4) |
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7 Risk: From Disease to Exposure |
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111 | (15) |
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112 | (2) |
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Design of Case-Control Studies |
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114 | (4) |
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114 | (1) |
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114 | (1) |
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114 | (2) |
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116 | (2) |
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The Odds Ratio: An Estimate of Relative Risk |
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118 | (2) |
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119 | (1) |
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Odds Ratio as an Indirect Estimate of Relative Risk |
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119 | (1) |
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Odds Ratio as a Direct Estimate of Relative Risk |
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120 | (1) |
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Controlling for Extraneous Variables |
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120 | (1) |
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Investigation of a Disease Outbreak |
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121 | (5) |
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126 | (16) |
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Differences in Risk and Prognostic Factors |
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126 | (1) |
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The Patients Are Different |
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127 | (1) |
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The Outcomes Are Different |
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127 | (1) |
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127 | (1) |
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The Factors May be Different |
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127 | (1) |
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Clinical Course and Natural History of Disease |
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127 | (1) |
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Elements of Prognostic Studies |
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127 | (2) |
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127 | (1) |
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128 | (1) |
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129 | (1) |
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129 | (1) |
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129 | (4) |
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A Trade-Off: Simplicity Versus More Information |
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129 | (1) |
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130 | (1) |
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130 | (2) |
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132 | (1) |
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Interpreting Survival Curves |
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133 | (1) |
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Identifying Prognostic Factors |
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133 | (1) |
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134 | (1) |
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Clinical Prediction Rules |
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134 | (1) |
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135 | (2) |
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136 | (1) |
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136 | (1) |
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136 | (1) |
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Bias from "Non-differential" Misclassification |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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Bias, Perhaps, But Does It Matter? |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (5) |
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142 | (20) |
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142 | (2) |
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142 | (1) |
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143 | (1) |
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Studies of Treatment Effects |
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144 | (1) |
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Observational and Experimental Studies of Treatment Effects |
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144 | (1) |
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Randomized Controlled Trials |
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144 | (8) |
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145 | (1) |
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145 | (2) |
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147 | (1) |
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147 | (1) |
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148 | (1) |
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Differences Arising After Randomization |
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149 | (1) |
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150 | (1) |
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150 | (2) |
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Efficacy and Effectiveness |
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152 | (1) |
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Intention-to-Treat and Explanatory Trials |
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153 | (1) |
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Superiority, Equivalence, and Noninferiority |
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153 | (2) |
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Variations on Basic Randomized Trials |
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155 | (1) |
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Tailoring the Results of Trials to Individual Patients |
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156 | (1) |
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156 | (1) |
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Effectiveness in Individual Patients |
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156 | (1) |
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156 | (1) |
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Alternatives to Randomized Controlled Trials |
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157 | (1) |
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Limitations of Randomized Trials |
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157 | (1) |
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Observational Studies of Interventions |
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157 | (1) |
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158 | (1) |
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Randomized Versus Observational Studies? |
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158 | (1) |
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Phases of Clinical Trials |
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158 | (4) |
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162 | (23) |
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Preventive Activities in Clinical Settings |
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162 | (1) |
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Types of Clinical Prevention |
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163 | (1) |
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163 | (2) |
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163 | (1) |
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164 | (1) |
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164 | (1) |
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Confusion About Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Prevention |
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164 | (1) |
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Scientific Approach to Clinical Prevention |
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165 | (1) |
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165 | (1) |
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Effectiveness of Treatment |
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166 | (3) |
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Treatment in Primary Prevention |
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166 | (1) |
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Treatment in Secondary Prevention |
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167 | (1) |
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Treatment in Tertiary Prevention |
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168 | (1) |
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Methodologic Issues in Evaluating Screening Programs |
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169 | (3) |
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Prevalence and Incidence Screens |
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169 | (1) |
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169 | (3) |
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Performance of Screening Tests |
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172 | (3) |
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High Sensitivity and Specificity |
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172 | (1) |
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Detection and Incidence Methods for Calculating Sensitivity |
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173 | (1) |
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Low Positive Predictive Value |
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174 | (1) |
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174 | (1) |
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175 | (1) |
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Acceptable to Patients and Clinicians |
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175 | (1) |
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Unintended Consequences of Screening |
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175 | (4) |
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Risk of False-Positive Result |
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176 | (1) |
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Risk of Negative Labeling Effect |
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176 | (1) |
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Risk of Overdiagnosis (Pseudodisease) in Cancer Screening |
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177 | (1) |
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178 | (1) |
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Changes in Screening Tests and Treatments Over Time |
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179 | (1) |
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Weighing Benefits Against Harms of Prevention |
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179 | (6) |
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185 | (19) |
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185 | (1) |
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186 | (4) |
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False-Positive and False-Negative Statistical Results |
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186 | (1) |
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Concluding That a Treatment Works |
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186 | (1) |
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Dichotomous and Exact P Values |
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187 | (1) |
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Statistical Significance and Clinical Importance |
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187 | (1) |
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188 | (1) |
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Concluding That a Treatment Does Not Work |
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189 | (1) |
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How Many Study Patients Are Enough? |
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190 | (3) |
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190 | (1) |
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Estimating Sample Size Requirements |
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190 | (3) |
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Point Estimates and Confidence Intervals |
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193 | (1) |
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Statistical Power After a Study Is Completed |
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194 | (1) |
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194 | (1) |
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194 | (2) |
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196 | (2) |
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197 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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198 | (2) |
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200 | (4) |
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204 | (15) |
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205 | (3) |
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205 | (1) |
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205 | (1) |
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Proximity of Ca u se to Effect |
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206 | (2) |
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Indirect Evidence for Cause |
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208 | (1) |
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Examining Individual Studies |
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208 | (1) |
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Hierarchy of Research Designs |
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209 | (1) |
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The Body of Evidence for and Against Cause |
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209 | (3) |
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Does Cause Precede Effect? |
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210 | (1) |
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Strength of the Association |
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210 | (1) |
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Dose-Response Relationships |
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210 | (1) |
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211 | (1) |
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211 | (1) |
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211 | (1) |
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212 | (1) |
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212 | (1) |
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212 | (2) |
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214 | (2) |
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216 | (3) |
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13 Summarizing the Evidence |
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219 | (17) |
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219 | (1) |
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220 | (6) |
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Defining a Specific Question |
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220 | (1) |
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221 | (2) |
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Assessing Study Quality and Characteristics |
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223 | (2) |
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225 | (1) |
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Combining Studies in Meta-Analyses |
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226 | (2) |
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Are the Studies Similar Enough to Justify Combining? |
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226 | (1) |
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How Are the Results Pooled? |
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227 | (1) |
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Identifying Reasons for Heterogeneity |
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228 | (1) |
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Additional Meta-Analysis Methods |
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229 | (2) |
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Patient-Level Meta-Analysis |
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229 | (1) |
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230 | (1) |
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230 | (1) |
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Systematic Reviews of Observational and Diagnostic Studies |
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231 | (1) |
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Strengths and Weaknesses of Meta-Analyses |
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232 | (4) |
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236 | (13) |
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236 | (3) |
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Do It Yourself or Delegate? |
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236 | (1) |
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237 | (1) |
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237 | (1) |
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Misleading Reports of Research Findings |
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237 | (2) |
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Looking Up Answers to Clinical Questions |
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239 | (2) |
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239 | (2) |
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Surveillance on New Developments |
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241 | (1) |
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242 | (3) |
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243 | (2) |
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Guiding Patients' Quest for Health Information |
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245 | (1) |
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Putting Knowledge Management into Practice |
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245 | (4) |
| Appendix A Answers To Review Questions |
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249 | (13) |
| Appendix B Additional Readings |
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262 | (3) |
| Index |
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265 | |
Lisainfo e-raamatute kohta