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xix | |
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xxii | |
Acknowledgements |
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xxv | |
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1 | (5) |
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1.1 The purpose of this book |
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1 | (1) |
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2 | (2) |
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4 | (2) |
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2 Basic statistics and probability |
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6 | (58) |
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2.1 Some definitions in statistics |
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6 | (2) |
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2.1.1 Censuses and surveys |
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7 | (1) |
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8 | (56) |
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8 | (1) |
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8 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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2.2.2 Data presentation: graphics |
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11 | (5) |
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2.2.3 Data presentation: non-graphical |
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16 | (1) |
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17 | (1) |
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Frequencies and proportions |
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17 | (4) |
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21 | (13) |
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34 | (11) |
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45 | (1) |
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Some useful properties of variances and standard deviations |
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46 | (1) |
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Proportions or probabilities |
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47 | (1) |
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48 | (2) |
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Covariance and correlation |
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50 | (1) |
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51 | (2) |
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Other measures of variability |
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53 | (9) |
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Alternatives to Sturges' rule |
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62 | (2) |
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3 Basic issues in surveys |
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64 | (17) |
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3.1 Need for survey methods |
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64 | (1) |
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3.1.1 A definition of sampling methodology |
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65 | (1) |
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65 | (3) |
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66 | (1) |
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67 | (1) |
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68 | (3) |
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69 | (1) |
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3.3.2 Probability sampling |
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70 | (1) |
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Sources of random numbers |
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71 | (1) |
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71 | (7) |
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3.4.1 Sample design and sampling error |
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73 | (1) |
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74 | (4) |
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78 | (1) |
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3.5 Some important definitions |
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78 | (3) |
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4 Ethics of surveys of human populations |
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81 | (10) |
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81 | (1) |
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4.2 Codes of ethics or practice |
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82 | (2) |
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4.3 Potential threats to confidentiality |
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84 | (2) |
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4.3.1 Retaining detail and confidentiality |
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85 | (1) |
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86 | (3) |
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89 | (2) |
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91 | (13) |
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5.1 Components of survey design |
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91 | (2) |
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5.2 Defining the survey purpose |
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93 | (9) |
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5.2.1 Components of survey purpose |
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94 | (1) |
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94 | (3) |
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Comparability or innovation |
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97 | (2) |
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99 | (1) |
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Data needs in human subject surveys |
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99 | (1) |
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100 | (1) |
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Geographic bounds for the survey |
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101 | (1) |
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5.3 Trade-offs in survey design |
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102 | (2) |
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6 Methods for conducting surveys of human populations |
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104 | (23) |
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104 | (1) |
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6.2 Face-to-face interviews |
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105 | (2) |
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107 | (1) |
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108 | (3) |
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111 | (1) |
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6.6 Compound survey methods |
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112 | (8) |
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6.6.1 Pre-recruitment contact |
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112 | (1) |
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113 | (2) |
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115 | (2) |
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117 | (1) |
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118 | (1) |
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119 | (1) |
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120 | (5) |
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6.7.1 Increasing response and reducing bias |
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123 | (2) |
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6.8 Observational surveys |
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125 | (2) |
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127 | (10) |
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127 | (1) |
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7.2 Definition of a focus group |
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128 | (4) |
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7.2.1 The size and number of focus groups |
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128 | (1) |
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7.2.2 How a focus group functions |
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129 | (2) |
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7.2.3 Analysing the focus group discussions |
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131 | (1) |
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7.2.4 Some disadvantages of focus groups |
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131 | (1) |
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7.3 Using focus groups to design a survey |
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132 | (2) |
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7.4 Using focus groups to evaluate a survey |
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134 | (1) |
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135 | (2) |
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8 Design of survey instruments |
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137 | (40) |
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8.1 Scope of this chapter |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (8) |
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8.2.1 Classification and behaviour questions |
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138 | (1) |
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Mitigating threatening questions |
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139 | (3) |
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8.2.2 Memory or recall error |
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142 | (3) |
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145 | (5) |
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145 | (1) |
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8.3.2 Field-coded questions |
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146 | (1) |
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147 | (3) |
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8.4 Physical layout of the survey instrument |
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150 | (27) |
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150 | (3) |
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153 | (1) |
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153 | (1) |
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154 | (4) |
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The end of the questionnaire |
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158 | (1) |
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8.4.3 Some general issues on question layout |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (1) |
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161 | (1) |
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162 | (1) |
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163 | (1) |
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164 | (2) |
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Use of colour and graphics |
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166 | (3) |
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169 | (1) |
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170 | (1) |
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171 | (1) |
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172 | (2) |
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174 | (1) |
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174 | (1) |
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174 | (1) |
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175 | (1) |
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Some final comments on questionnaire layout |
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176 | (1) |
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9 Design of questions and question wording |
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177 | (22) |
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177 | (1) |
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9.2 Issues in writing questions |
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178 | (10) |
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9.2.1 Requiring an answer |
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178 | (2) |
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180 | (1) |
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9.2.3 Accurate recall and reporting |
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181 | (1) |
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182 | (1) |
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9.2.5 Motivation to answer |
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183 | (1) |
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9.2.6 Influences on response categories |
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184 | (1) |
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9.2.7 Use of categories and other responses |
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185 | (2) |
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Ordered and unordered categories |
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187 | (1) |
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9.3 Principles for writing questions |
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188 | (9) |
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9.3.1 Use simple language |
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189 | (1) |
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190 | (1) |
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9.3.3 Avoid using vague words |
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191 | (2) |
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9.3.4 Avoid using `Tick all that apply' formats |
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193 | (1) |
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9.3.5 Develop response categories that are mutually exclusive and exhaustive |
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193 | (2) |
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9.3.6 Make sure that questions are technically correct |
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195 | (1) |
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9.3.7 Do not ask respondents to say `Yes' in order to say `No' |
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196 | (1) |
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9.3.8 Avoid double-barrelled questions |
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196 | (1) |
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197 | (2) |
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10 Special issues for qualitative and preference surveys |
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199 | (12) |
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199 | (1) |
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10.2 Designing qualitative questions |
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199 | (7) |
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200 | (6) |
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10.3 Stated response questions |
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206 | (4) |
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10.3.1 The hypothetical situation |
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206 | (1) |
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10.3.2 Determining attribute levels |
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207 | (1) |
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10.3.3 Number of choice alternatives or scenarios |
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207 | (1) |
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10.3.4 Other issues of concern |
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208 | (1) |
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208 | (1) |
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209 | (1) |
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209 | (1) |
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10.4 Some concluding comments on stated response survey design |
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210 | (1) |
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11 Design of data collection procedures |
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211 | (40) |
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211 | (1) |
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11.2 Contacting respondents |
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211 | (10) |
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11.2.1 Pre-notification contacts |
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211 | (2) |
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11.2.2 Number and type of contacts |
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213 | (1) |
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Nature of reminder contacts |
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213 | (2) |
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215 | (1) |
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Postal surveys with telephone recruitment |
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216 | (1) |
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217 | (2) |
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219 | (1) |
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220 | (1) |
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11.3 Who should respond to the survey? |
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221 | (4) |
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221 | (2) |
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11.3.2 Full household surveys |
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223 | (1) |
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224 | (1) |
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11.4 Defining a complete response |
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225 | (4) |
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11.4.1 Completeness of the data items |
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226 | (2) |
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11.4.2 Completeness of aggregate sampling units |
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228 | (1) |
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229 | (6) |
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11.5.1 When to replace a sample unit |
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229 | (4) |
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11.5.2 How to replace a sample |
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233 | (2) |
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235 | (5) |
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11.6.1 Recommendations on incentives |
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236 | (4) |
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240 | (10) |
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241 | (1) |
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11.7.2 Appropriate moment |
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242 | (1) |
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11.7.3 Perceived relevance |
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242 | (1) |
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243 | (1) |
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243 | (1) |
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244 | (1) |
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245 | (1) |
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246 | (1) |
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246 | (1) |
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Attitudes and opinions of others |
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246 | (1) |
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247 | (1) |
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Appropriateness of the medium |
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248 | (1) |
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11.7.6 Mitigating respondent burden |
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248 | (2) |
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250 | (1) |
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12 Pilot surveys and pretests |
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251 | (14) |
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251 | (1) |
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252 | (3) |
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12.3 Selecting respondents for pretests and pilot surveys |
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255 | (7) |
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12.3.1 Selecting respondents |
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255 | (3) |
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258 | (1) |
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258 | (3) |
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261 | (1) |
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12.4 Costs and time requirements of pretests and pilot surveys |
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262 | (2) |
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264 | (1) |
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13 Sample design and sampling |
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265 | (72) |
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265 | (1) |
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266 | (2) |
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13.3 Random sampling procedures |
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268 | (2) |
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13.3.1 Initial considerations |
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268 | (1) |
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13.3.2 The normal law of error |
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269 | (1) |
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13.4 Random sampling methods |
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270 | (44) |
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13.4.1 Simple random sampling |
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271 | (1) |
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271 | (2) |
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Estimating population statistics and sampling errors |
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273 | (3) |
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276 | (3) |
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Sampling from a finite population |
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279 | (1) |
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Sampling error of ratios and proportions |
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279 | (2) |
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281 | (2) |
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283 | (2) |
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13.4.2 Stratified sampling |
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285 | (1) |
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Types of stratified samples |
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285 | (2) |
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287 | (1) |
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Weighted means and variances |
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287 | (2) |
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Stratified sampling with a uniform sampling fraction |
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289 | (1) |
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289 | (1) |
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Estimating population statistics and sampling errors |
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290 | (1) |
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Pre- and post-stratification |
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291 | (2) |
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293 | (1) |
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294 | (1) |
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Summary of proportionate sampling |
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295 | (1) |
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Stratified sampling with variable sampling fraction |
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295 | (1) |
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295 | (1) |
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Estimating population statistics and sampling errors |
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296 | (1) |
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Non-coincident study domains and strata |
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296 | (1) |
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Optimum allocation and economic design |
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297 | (1) |
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298 | (2) |
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Survey costs differing by stratum |
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300 | (1) |
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301 | (2) |
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Practical issues in drawing disproportionate samples |
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303 | (2) |
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Concluding comments on disproportionate sampling |
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305 | (1) |
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13.4.3 Multistage sampling |
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305 | (1) |
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Drawing a multistage sample |
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306 | (1) |
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Requirements for multistage sampling |
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307 | (1) |
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Estimating population values and sampling statistics |
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308 | (1) |
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|
309 | (5) |
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Concluding comments on multistage sampling |
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314 | (1) |
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13.5 Quasi-random sampling methods |
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314 | (20) |
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316 | (1) |
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Equal clusters: population values and standard errors |
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317 | (2) |
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319 | (2) |
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The effects of clustering |
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321 | (1) |
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Unequal clusters: population values and standard errors |
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322 | (2) |
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Random selection of unequal clusters |
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324 | (1) |
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325 | (1) |
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Stratified sampling of unequal clusters |
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326 | (1) |
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Paired selection of unequal-sized clusters |
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327 | (1) |
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13.5.2 Systematic sampling |
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328 | (1) |
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Population values and standard errors in a systematic sample |
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328 | (1) |
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329 | (1) |
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329 | (1) |
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329 | (1) |
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Successive difference model |
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330 | (1) |
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330 | (3) |
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13.5.3 Choice-based sampling |
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333 | (1) |
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13.6 Non-random sampling methods |
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334 | (2) |
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334 | (1) |
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13.6.2 Intentional, judgemental, or expert samples |
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335 | (1) |
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335 | (1) |
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13.6.4 Convenience samples |
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336 | (1) |
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336 | (1) |
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337 | (19) |
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337 | (1) |
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14.2 Non-overlapping samples |
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338 | (1) |
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339 | (2) |
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14.4 Subsampling on the second and subsequent occasions |
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341 | (1) |
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14.5 Complete overlap: a panel |
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342 | (1) |
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14.6 Practical issues in designing and conducting panel surveys |
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343 | (5) |
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344 | (1) |
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Replacement of panel members lost by attrition |
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345 | (1) |
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Reducing losses due to attrition |
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346 | (1) |
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347 | (1) |
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348 | (1) |
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14.7 Advantages and disadvantages of panels |
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348 | (1) |
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14.8 Methods for administering practical panel surveys |
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349 | (3) |
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352 | (4) |
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356 | (9) |
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|
356 | (1) |
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15.2 Cost elements in survey design |
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357 | (2) |
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15.3 Trade-offs in survey design |
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359 | (4) |
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|
360 | (1) |
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15.3.2 Telephone recruitment with a postal survey with or without telephone retrieval |
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361 | (1) |
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15.3.3 Face-to-face interview |
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362 | (1) |
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15.3.4 More on potential trade-offs |
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362 | (1) |
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363 | (2) |
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|
365 | (20) |
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|
365 | (1) |
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16.2 Interviewer selection and training |
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365 | (5) |
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16.2.1 Interviewer selection |
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|
365 | (3) |
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16.2.2 Interviewer training |
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368 | (1) |
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16.2.3 Interviewer monitoring |
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369 | (1) |
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370 | (2) |
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372 | (1) |
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|
373 | (1) |
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16.5.1 Frequently asked questions, fact sheet, or brochure |
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|
374 | (1) |
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16.6 Storage of survey forms |
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374 | (3) |
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16.6.1 Identification numbers |
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|
375 | (2) |
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16.7 Issues for surveys using posted materials |
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377 | (1) |
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16.8 Issues for surveys using telephone contact |
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|
377 | (4) |
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|
378 | (1) |
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16.8.2 Answering machines |
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|
378 | (2) |
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16.8.3 Repeated requests for callback |
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|
380 | (1) |
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16.9 Data on incomplete responses |
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381 | (1) |
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16.10 Checking survey responses |
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382 | (1) |
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16.11 Times to avoid data collection |
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|
383 | (1) |
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16.12 Summary comments on survey implementation |
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|
383 | (2) |
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385 | (16) |
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|
385 | (3) |
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17.2 The internet as an optional response mechanism |
|
|
388 | (1) |
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17.3 Some design issues for Web surveys |
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389 | (9) |
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17.3.1 Differences between paper and internet surveys |
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389 | (1) |
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17.3.2 Question and response |
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|
390 | (2) |
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17.3.3 Ability to fill in the Web survey in multiple sittings |
|
|
392 | (1) |
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393 | (1) |
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17.3.5 Pre-filled responses |
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|
394 | (1) |
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17.3.6 Confidentiality in Web-based surveys |
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
17.3.7 Pictures, maps, etc. on Web surveys |
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
Animation in survey pictures and maps |
|
|
396 | (1) |
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396 | (1) |
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|
396 | (1) |
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|
397 | (1) |
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|
398 | (1) |
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17.4 Some design principles for Web surveys |
|
|
398 | (1) |
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|
399 | (2) |
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|
401 | (17) |
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|
401 | (1) |
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|
402 | (11) |
|
18.2.1 Coding of missing values |
|
|
402 | (1) |
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18.2.2 Use of zeros and blanks in coding |
|
|
403 | (1) |
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18.2.3 Coding consistency |
|
|
404 | (1) |
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|
404 | (1) |
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|
404 | (1) |
|
18.2.4 Coding complex variables |
|
|
405 | (1) |
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|
406 | (2) |
|
Requesting address details for other places than home |
|
|
408 | (1) |
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|
409 | (1) |
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|
410 | (1) |
|
Other forms of geocoding assistance |
|
|
410 | (1) |
|
Locating by mapping software |
|
|
411 | (1) |
|
18.2.6 Methods for creating codes |
|
|
412 | (1) |
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|
413 | (3) |
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|
416 | (2) |
|
19 Data expansion and weighting |
|
|
418 | (13) |
|
|
418 | (1) |
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|
419 | (2) |
|
19.2.1 Simple random sampling |
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
19.2.2 Stratified sampling |
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
19.2.3 Multistage sampling |
|
|
420 | (1) |
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|
420 | (1) |
|
19.2.5 Other sampling methods |
|
|
421 | (1) |
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|
421 | (8) |
|
19.3.1 Weighting with unknown population totals |
|
|
422 | (1) |
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|
423 | (1) |
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|
424 | (2) |
|
19.3.2 Weighting with known populations |
|
|
426 | (1) |
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|
427 | (2) |
|
|
429 | (2) |
|
|
431 | (33) |
|
|
431 | (1) |
|
|
432 | (18) |
|
20.2.1 Calculating response rates |
|
|
432 | (1) |
|
Classifying responses to a survey |
|
|
433 | (2) |
|
Calculating response rates |
|
|
435 | (5) |
|
20.2.2 Reducing nonresponse and increasing response rates |
|
|
440 | (1) |
|
Design issues affecting nonresponse |
|
|
440 | (2) |
|
|
442 | (1) |
|
|
442 | (1) |
|
Use of reminders and repeat contacts |
|
|
443 | (1) |
|
|
444 | (1) |
|
|
445 | (1) |
|
20.2.3 Nonresponse surveys |
|
|
445 | (5) |
|
|
450 | (14) |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
Flagging repaired variables |
|
|
451 | (1) |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
|
454 | (1) |
|
|
454 | (1) |
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
Imputation using neural networks |
|
|
458 | (2) |
|
Summary of imputation methods |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
20.3.2 A final note on item nonresponse |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
Strategies to obtain age and income |
|
|
461 | (1) |
|
|
461 | (1) |
|
|
462 | (2) |
|
21 Measuring data quality |
|
|
464 | (14) |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
21.2 General measures of data quality |
|
|
464 | (5) |
|
21.2.1 Missing value statistic |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
21.2.2 Data cleaning statistic |
|
|
466 | (1) |
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
|
468 | (1) |
|
21.3 Specific measures of data quality |
|
|
469 | (3) |
|
21.3.1 Non-mobility rates |
|
|
469 | (1) |
|
21.3.2 Trip rates and activity rates |
|
|
470 | (1) |
|
|
471 | (1) |
|
|
472 | (4) |
|
21.4.1 Follow-up questions |
|
|
473 | (2) |
|
21.4.2 Independent measurement |
|
|
475 | (1) |
|
21.5 Adherence to quality measures and guidance |
|
|
476 | (2) |
|
22 Future directions in survey procedures |
|
|
478 | (21) |
|
22.1 Dangers of forecasting new directions |
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
|
478 | (11) |
|
22.2.1 Reliance on telephones |
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
Threats to the use of telephone surveys |
|
|
479 | (2) |
|
Conclusions on reliance on telephones |
|
|
481 | (1) |
|
22.2.2 Language and literacy |
|
|
481 | (1) |
|
|
481 | (2) |
|
|
483 | (3) |
|
22.2.3 Mixed-mode surveys |
|
|
486 | (1) |
|
22.2.4 Use of administrative data |
|
|
487 | (1) |
|
|
488 | (1) |
|
22.3 Some possible future directions |
|
|
489 | (10) |
|
22.3.1 A GPS survey as a potential substitute for a household travel survey |
|
|
493 | (2) |
|
The effect of multiple observations of each respondent on sample size |
|
|
495 | (4) |
|
23 Documenting and archiving |
|
|
499 | (12) |
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
23.2 Documentation or the creation of metadata |
|
|
499 | (7) |
|
23.2.1 Descriptive metadata |
|
|
500 | (3) |
|
23.2.2 Preservation metadata |
|
|
503 | (1) |
|
23.2.3 Geospatial metadata |
|
|
503 | (3) |
|
|
506 | (5) |
References |
|
511 | (14) |
Index |
|
525 | |