Preface |
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1. Introduction |
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1.1 Historical Development of Fire Modeling |
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1.2 Overview of Current Trends in Fire Modeling |
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1.3 Review of Major Fire Disasters and Impact on Fire Modeling |
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1.3.2 World Trade Center Fire |
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1.4 Application of Fire Dynamics Tools in Practice |
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1.5 Validation and Verification of Fire Dynamics Tools |
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2. Field Modeling Approach |
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Part I Mathematical Equations |
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2.1 Computational Fluid Dynamics: Brief Introduction |
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2.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics in Field Modeling |
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2.4.1 Continuity Equation |
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2.5 Differential and Integral Forms of the Transport Equations |
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2.6 Physical Interpretation of Boundary Conditions for Field Modeling |
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2.7 Numerical Approximations of Transport Equations for Field Modeling |
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2.7.1 Discretisation Methods |
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2.7.2 Solution algorithms |
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2.7.2.2 Pressure-Velocity Linkage Methods |
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2.7.3 Boundary Conditions |
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2.10 Overview of Turbulence Modeling Approaches |
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2.11 Additional Equations for Turbulent Flow—Standard k-E Turbulence Model |
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2.12 Other Turbulence Models |
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2.12.1 Variant of Standard k-E Turbulence Models |
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2.12.2 Reynolds Stress Models |
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2.13 Near-Wall Treatments |
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2.14 Setting Boundary Conditions |
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2.15 Guidelines for Setting Turbulence Models in Field Modeling |
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2.16 Worked Examples on the Application of Turbulence Models in Field Modeling |
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2.16.1 Single-Room Compartment Fire |
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2.16.2 Influence of Gaps of Fire Resisting Doors on Smoke Spread |
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3. Additional Considerations in Field Modeling |
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3.1 Turbulent Combustion in Fires |
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3.2 Detailed Chemistry versus Simplified Chemistry |
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3.3 Overview of Combustion Modeling Approaches |
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3.4.1 Generalized Finite-Rate Formulation |
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3.4.1.1 Background Theory |
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3.4.1.2 Species Transport Equations |
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3.4.1.3 Laminar Finite-Rate Chemistry |
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3.4.1.4 Eddy Break-up and Eddy Dissipation |
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3.4.2 Combustion Based on Conserved Scalar |
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3.4.2.1 Description of Approach |
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3.4.2.2 Definition of Mixture Fraction |
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3.4.2.3 Flame Sheet Approximation |
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3.4.2.4 State Relationships |
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3.4.2.5 Probability Density Function (PDF) of Turbulence-Chemistry |
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3.4.2.6 Laminar Flamelet Approach |
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3.5 Guidelines for Selecting Combustion Models in Field Modeling |
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3.6 Worked Examples on the Application of Combustion Models in Field Modeling |
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3.6.1 Single-Room Compartment Fire |
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3.6.2 Two-Room Compartment Fire |
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3.9 Radiative Transfer Equation |
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3.10 Radiation Properties of Combustion Products |
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3.10.1 Gray Gas Assumption |
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3.10.2 Weighted Sum of Gray Gases Model |
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3.11 Radiation Methods for Field Modeling |
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3.11.2 P-1 Radiation Model |
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3.11.3 Discrete Transfer Radiative Model |
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3.11.4 Discrete Ordinates Model |
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3.11.5 Finite Volume Method |
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3.12 Guidelines for Selecting Radiation Models in Field Modeling |
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3.13 Worked Examples on the Application of Radiation Models in Field Modeling |
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3.13.1 Single-Room Compartment Fire |
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3.13.2 Two-Room Compartment Fire |
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4. Further Considerations in Field Modeling |
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4.1 Importance of Soot Radiation |
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4.2 Overview and Limitations of Soot Modeling |
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4.3 Soot Models for Field Modeling |
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4.3.1 Single-Step Empirical Rate |
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4.3.2 Semi-Empirical Approach |
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4.4 Population Balance Approach to Soot Formation |
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4.4.1 What Is Population Balance? |
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4.4.2 Formulation of Transport Equations and Rate Mechanisms |
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4.5 Guidelines for Selecting Soot Models in Fire Modeling |
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4.6 Worked Examples on the Application of Soot Models in Field Modeling |
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4.6.1 Two-Room Compartment Fire |
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4.6.2 Multi-Room Compartment Fire |
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4.8 Importance of Pyrolysis in Fires |
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4.9 Phenomenological Understanding of Pyrolysis Processes |
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4.10 Physico-Chemical Description of Pyrolysis Processes |
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4.10.1 Pyrolysis of Cellulose |
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4.10.2 Pyrolysis of Hemicellulose |
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4.10.3 Pyrolysis of Lignins |
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4.11 Formulation of Governing Equations |
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4.11.1 Conservation of Energy for Wood Pyrolysis |
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4.11.2 Conservation of Mass for Wood Pyrolysis |
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4.11.3 Modeling Wood Pyrolysis Source Terms |
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4.11.4 Thermophysical Properties of Wood Pyrolysis |
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4.12 Practical Guidelines to Pyrolysis Models in Field Modeling |
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4.13 Worked Example on Ignition of Combustible of Charring Material in a Cone Calorimeter |
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4.14 Worked Example on Fire Growth ad Flame Spread Over Combustible Wall Lining in a Single-Room Compartment |
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5. Advance Technique in Field Modeling |
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5.1 Next Stages of Development and Application |
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5.2 Alternative Approach to Handling Turbulence |
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5.2.1 Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) |
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5.2.2 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) |
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5.3 Favre-Averaged Navier-Stokes versus Large Eddy Simulation |
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5.4 Formulation of Numerical Algorithm |
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5.4.1 Explicit Predictor-Corrector Scheme |
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5.4.2 Combustion Modeling |
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5.4.3 Inclusion of Other Physical Models |
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5.5 Worked Examples on Large Eddy Simulation Applications |
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5.5.1 A Freestanding Buoyant Fire |
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5.5.2 Fire in a Single-room Compartment |
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6. Other Challenges in Fire Safety Engineering |
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6.1 Fire Safety Evaluation and Assessment |
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6.1.1 Deviation from Prescriptive-Based Statutory Requirements |
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6.1.2 Adopting Performance-Based Methodologies |
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6.2 Overview of Emerging Technique in Field Modeling |
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6.3 Overview of Evacuation Modeling |
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6.4 Overview of Probabilistic Approach |
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6.5.1 The Predictive Capability of Artificial Neural Network Fire Model in a Single-Room Compartment Fire |
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6.5.2 The Application of CFD-Based Fire Model and Evacuation Model for Fire Safety Evaluation and Assessment |
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6.6 Future Developments in Fire Predictive and Assessment Models |
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Appendix A Higher-Order Differencing Schemes and Time-Marching Methods |
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Appendix B Algebraic Equation System and CFD-Based Fire Model |
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Appendix C Advanced Combustion Modeling |
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Appendix D Relevant Tables for Combustion and Radiation Modeling |
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References and Further Suggested Reading |
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Index |
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