Part I Modeling and Analysis |
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3 | (44) |
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1.1 Distributed Generation |
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3 | (9) |
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3 | (2) |
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1.1.2 Value of Distributed Generation |
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5 | (1) |
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1.1.3 Applications and Issues |
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5 | (1) |
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1.1.4 Distributed Resources |
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6 | (1) |
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1.1.5 Distributed Capacity |
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7 | (1) |
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1.1.6 Factors of DG Growth |
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7 | (2) |
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1.1.7 Impacts on Transmission System Operation |
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9 | (1) |
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10 | (2) |
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1.1.9 Integrating Distributed Energy Resources |
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12 | (1) |
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1.2 Supply—Demand in Electric Power Grid |
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12 | (4) |
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1.2.1 Understanding the Grid |
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12 | (1) |
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1.2.2 Reliability Concepts |
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13 | (1) |
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1.2.3 Electric Power Dynamic Demand |
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14 | (1) |
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1.2.4 The Need for Spinning Reserve |
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14 | (1) |
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15 | (1) |
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15 | (1) |
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1.2.7 Implementation Issues |
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15 | (1) |
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1.3 Overview of Microgrids |
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16 | (10) |
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18 | (1) |
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19 | (2) |
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1.3.3 Control Objectives and Methods |
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21 | (2) |
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1.3.4 Microsource Control |
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23 | (2) |
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1.3.5 Control and Protection Requirements |
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25 | (1) |
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1.3.6 Reliable and Economical Operation |
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26 | (1) |
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26 | (3) |
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1.4.1 Efficiency and Reliability |
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27 | (1) |
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1.4.2 Environmental Benefits |
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28 | (1) |
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1.4.3 Benefits to Consumers |
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28 | (1) |
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29 | (1) |
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29 | (6) |
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1.5.1 Two-Way Communications |
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29 | (1) |
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1.5.2 Control and Monitoring Techniques |
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30 | (1) |
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1.5.3 Advanced Components |
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30 | (1) |
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31 | (2) |
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1.5.5 Robust Energy Management |
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33 | (2) |
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35 | (4) |
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36 | (1) |
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37 | (1) |
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1.6.3 Grid Connection Control |
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38 | (1) |
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38 | (1) |
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1.6.5 Power Balancing Principle |
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38 | (1) |
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39 | (2) |
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39 | (1) |
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1.7.2 Chapter Organization |
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40 | (1) |
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41 | (6) |
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2 Distributed Generation Plants |
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47 | (42) |
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2.1 Combined Heat and Power Plants |
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47 | (8) |
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47 | (1) |
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2.1.2 Microcogeneration Systems |
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48 | (1) |
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2.1.3 Internal Combustion Engines |
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49 | (1) |
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49 | (2) |
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51 | (2) |
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53 | (2) |
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2.2 Renewable Energy Generation |
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55 | (3) |
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55 | (2) |
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2.2.2 Small-Scale Hydrogeneration |
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57 | (1) |
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2.3 Solar Photovoltaic Generation |
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58 | (4) |
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59 | (1) |
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2.3.2 Grid-Connected Solar Systems |
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60 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
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2.4 Small Wind Turbine Systems |
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62 | (8) |
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2.4.1 Types of Wind Turbine Systems |
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63 | (3) |
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2.4.2 Wind Turbine Fundamentals |
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66 | (1) |
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67 | (1) |
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2.4.4 Generator Side Control |
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68 | (1) |
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2.4.5 Boost Converter Control |
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68 | (2) |
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70 | (1) |
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70 | (4) |
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2.5.1 Classification of Electrical Energy Storage |
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71 | (1) |
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2.5.2 Mechanical Storage Systems |
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72 | (1) |
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72 | (1) |
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73 | (1) |
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2.5.5 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage |
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73 | (1) |
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74 | (1) |
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74 | (4) |
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2.6.1 Voltage Source Inverters |
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74 | (2) |
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2.6.2 Inverter Realization for Microsources |
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76 | (1) |
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2.6.3 Inverter Realization |
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76 | (1) |
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2.6.4 Unbalanced AC Voltages |
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77 | (1) |
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78 | (1) |
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78 | (6) |
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84 | (5) |
Part II Architectures and Integration |
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3 Control Methods for Microgrids |
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89 | (70) |
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89 | (1) |
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90 | (14) |
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3.2.1 Definition and Applications |
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90 | (1) |
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91 | (1) |
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3.2.3 Components and Formation |
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92 | (2) |
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3.2.4 Overview of Modeling |
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94 | (9) |
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103 | (1) |
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104 | (12) |
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3.3.1 Control of Grid-Connected Mode |
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104 | (1) |
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3.3.2 Power Flow Control by Current Regulation |
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105 | (1) |
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3.3.3 Power Flow Control by Voltage Regulation |
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105 | (1) |
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3.3.4 Agent-Based Control |
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106 | (1) |
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3.3.5 Distributed Control |
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107 | (2) |
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109 | (1) |
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3.3.7 Autonomous/Islanded Mode |
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109 | (1) |
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110 | (2) |
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112 | (1) |
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3.3.10 New Q-V Droop Control |
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112 | (1) |
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3.3.11 Control Design Based on Transfer Function |
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113 | (1) |
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3.3.12 Microgrid Control in both Modes |
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114 | (2) |
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116 | (10) |
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116 | (1) |
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116 | (1) |
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3.4.3 Decentralized Control |
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117 | (3) |
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120 | (2) |
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3.4.5 Networked Control Systems |
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122 | (3) |
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3.4.6 Comparative Analysis |
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125 | (1) |
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3.5 Modeling and Analysis of Inverter-Based Microgrids |
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126 | (21) |
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128 | (1) |
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3.5.2 Microgrid Model in Autonomous Mode |
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129 | (3) |
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3.5.3 State-Space Model of a Voltage Source Inverter |
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132 | (8) |
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3.5.4 Combined Model of All the Inverters |
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140 | (1) |
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141 | (2) |
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143 | (1) |
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3.5.7 Complete Microgrid Model |
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144 | (1) |
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3.5.8 Sensitivity Analysis |
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145 | (2) |
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147 | (1) |
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148 | (4) |
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152 | (7) |
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4 Optimal Energy Management |
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159 | (50) |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (2) |
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4.3 Microgrid and Load Forecasting |
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162 | (5) |
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162 | (4) |
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4.3.2 Microgrid Environment Forecasting |
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166 | (1) |
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4.4 Multiobjective Energy Management |
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167 | (7) |
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169 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Fuzzy-Logic-Based Expert System |
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170 | (4) |
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174 | (7) |
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4.5.1 RE Power Generation and Load Forecasting |
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174 | (3) |
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4.5.2 Multiobjective Intelligent Energy Management |
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177 | (4) |
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4.6 Optimal Energy Cost Management |
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181 | (2) |
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183 | (5) |
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184 | (1) |
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185 | (1) |
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4.7.3 Grid Connection Control |
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186 | (1) |
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186 | (1) |
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4.7.5 Power Balancing Principle |
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187 | (1) |
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4.8 Supervision Control Design |
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188 | (5) |
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4.8.1 Human—Machine Interface Layer |
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189 | (1) |
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189 | (1) |
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4.8.3 Energy Management Layer |
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190 | (2) |
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192 | (1) |
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4.9 Simulation Results II |
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193 | (8) |
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4.9.1 Optimization Results |
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194 | (2) |
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4.9.2 Powers Flow Simulation I |
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196 | (3) |
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4.9.3 Powers Flow Simulation II |
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199 | (1) |
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4.9.4 Comparison and Discussion |
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200 | (1) |
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201 | (1) |
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202 | (1) |
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203 | (6) |
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5 A System of Systems Framework for Microgrids |
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209 | (42) |
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209 | (1) |
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210 | (4) |
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5.2.1 Microgrid Central Controller |
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211 | (1) |
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5.2.2 Microsource and Load Controllers |
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212 | (1) |
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213 | (1) |
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5.2.4 Microsources and Fuel Cells |
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213 | (1) |
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214 | (1) |
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214 | (6) |
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215 | (1) |
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5.3.2 Grid-Connected Operation |
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216 | (1) |
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5.3.3 Grid-Islanded Operation |
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216 | (3) |
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5.3.4 Operation of the Microgrid Under the SoS Framework |
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219 | (1) |
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5.4 Modeling of Microgrid |
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220 | (5) |
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220 | (2) |
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5.4.2 PV Solar Cell Model |
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222 | (1) |
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223 | (2) |
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5.5 Microgrid Control Architecture |
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225 | (10) |
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226 | (2) |
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5.5.2 Hierarchical Control |
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228 | (1) |
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229 | (1) |
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5.5.4 Centralized and Decentralized Control |
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230 | (4) |
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5.5.5 More on Decentralized Control |
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234 | (1) |
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5.6 Application to Islanded Microgrid |
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235 | (6) |
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5.6.1 Two-Level Control Strategy |
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237 | (1) |
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5.6.2 Local Subsystem Control |
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237 | (1) |
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5.6.3 Global Corrective Control |
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238 | (1) |
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239 | (2) |
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241 | (1) |
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242 | (3) |
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245 | (6) |
Part III Communication and Control |
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6 Networked Control of Microgrid System of Systems |
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251 | (58) |
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251 | (2) |
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253 | (3) |
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6.3 Microgrid Islanded System Modeling |
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256 | (2) |
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6.4 Networked Control System |
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258 | (3) |
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6.5 Closed-Loop Stability Results |
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261 | (4) |
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265 | (4) |
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6.7 Microalternator and Photovoltaic Systems |
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269 | (32) |
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269 | (3) |
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6.7.2 Modeling of the Microalternator—PV System |
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272 | (1) |
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272 | (3) |
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6.7.4 Photovoltaic System |
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275 | (11) |
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6.7.5 Networked Control System Modeling |
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286 | (12) |
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298 | (3) |
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301 | (3) |
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304 | (3) |
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307 | (2) |
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7 Decentralized Voltage Control Methods |
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309 | (70) |
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309 | (1) |
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310 | (5) |
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311 | (1) |
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312 | (1) |
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7.2.3 Overcurrent Limiters |
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313 | (1) |
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7.2.4 Islanding Detection Approach |
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314 | (1) |
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7.3 Small-Signal Dynamic Analysis |
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315 | (6) |
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7.3.1 Dynamics of Grid-Connected Mode |
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316 | (2) |
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7.3.2 Dynamics of Autonomous Mode-Case 1 |
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318 | (2) |
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7.3.3 Dynamics of Autonomous Mode-Case 2 |
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320 | (1) |
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7.4 Time-Domain Simulation Results |
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321 | (7) |
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7.4.1 Grid-Connected Mode |
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321 | (1) |
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7.4.2 Ride-Through Capability of DG Unit |
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322 | (1) |
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7.4.3 Transition Capability from Grid-Connected to Islanded Mode |
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323 | (4) |
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327 | (1) |
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7.5 Robust Control Strategy for Multi-Microgrids |
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328 | (9) |
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329 | (1) |
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330 | (1) |
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330 | (5) |
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335 | (2) |
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337 | (11) |
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7.6.1 Design Requirements |
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339 | (1) |
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7.6.2 Existence Conditions |
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339 | (2) |
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7.6.3 Real Stability Radius Constraints |
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341 | (1) |
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7.6.4 Controller Design Procedure |
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341 | (2) |
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7.6.5 A Decentralized Controller Scheme |
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343 | (1) |
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7.6.6 Properties of the Closed-Loop System |
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343 | (4) |
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7.6.7 Other Robustness Measures |
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347 | (1) |
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7.7 Decentralized Inverter Control |
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348 | (20) |
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349 | (3) |
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7.7.2 Power Sharing Control Strategy |
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352 | (1) |
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353 | (1) |
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7.7.4 Decentralized Information Acquisition |
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353 | (1) |
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7.7.5 Stability Analysis Without Communication Delay |
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354 | (1) |
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7.7.6 Model of Individual Inverter |
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355 | (4) |
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7.7.7 Combined Inverter Model |
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359 | (2) |
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361 | (2) |
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363 | (1) |
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7.7.10 System Stability Evaluation |
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363 | (1) |
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7.7.11 Stability Analysis with Communication Delay |
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363 | (2) |
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7.7.12 Simulation Results |
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365 | (3) |
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368 | (1) |
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369 | (5) |
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374 | (5) |
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8 Advanced Control Approaches |
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379 | (88) |
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379 | (1) |
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8.2 Distributed Control Architecture |
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379 | (29) |
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8.2.1 Integrated Wind/Solar/RO System Modeling |
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381 | (3) |
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8.2.2 Water Desalination System Description |
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384 | (2) |
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8.2.3 Short-Term Supervisory Predictive Control |
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386 | (1) |
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8.2.4 Supervisory Control System Design I |
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387 | (2) |
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8.2.5 Simulation Results I |
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389 | (4) |
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8.2.6 Integration for Long-Term Operation |
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393 | (1) |
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8.2.7 Supervisory Control System Design H |
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394 | (2) |
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8.2.8 Simulation Results II |
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396 | (4) |
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8.2.9 Distributed Energy Systems |
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400 | (2) |
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8.2.10 Distributed Frequency Control |
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402 | (3) |
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8.2.11 Simulation Results III |
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405 | (3) |
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8.3 Multilevel Control of Droop-Controlled Microgrids |
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408 | (13) |
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8.3.1 A Generalized Multilevel Structure |
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409 | (2) |
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8.3.2 Multilevel Control of AC Microgrids |
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411 | (1) |
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8.3.3 Inner Control Loops |
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412 | (1) |
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412 | (2) |
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414 | (1) |
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415 | (1) |
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8.3.7 Simulation Results IV |
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416 | (5) |
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8.4 Multilevel Control of DC Microgrids |
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421 | (6) |
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422 | (1) |
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423 | (1) |
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424 | (1) |
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8.4.4 Simulation Results V |
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425 | (2) |
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8.5 Enhanced Compensation Technique |
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427 | (13) |
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8.5.1 Microgrid Multilevel Control Scheme |
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428 | (2) |
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430 | (1) |
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8.5.3 Fundamental Positive Sequence Powers Controllers |
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431 | (1) |
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8.5.4 Voltage and Current Controllers |
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431 | (1) |
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8.5.5 Virtual Impedance Loop |
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431 | (3) |
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8.5.6 Compensation Effort Controller |
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434 | (1) |
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8.5.7 Secondary Controller |
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435 | (1) |
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8.5.8 Simulation Results VI |
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436 | (4) |
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8.6 Distributed Cooperative Control |
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440 | (15) |
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8.6.1 Microgrid Control Levels |
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442 | (1) |
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8.6.2 Large-Signal Inverter-Based Model |
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443 | (4) |
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8.6.3 Cooperative Secondary Voltage Control |
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447 | (1) |
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8.6.4 Feedback Linearization and Tracking Synchronization |
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447 | (4) |
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8.6.5 Required Sparse Communication Topology |
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451 | (1) |
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8.6.6 Simulation Results VII |
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452 | (3) |
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455 | (2) |
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457 | (5) |
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462 | (5) |
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9 Real-Time Implementation |
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467 | (64) |
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9.1 Neural-Network-Based Secondary Control |
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467 | (20) |
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467 | (3) |
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9.1.2 An Autonomous Microgrid |
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470 | (1) |
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471 | (3) |
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9.1.4 Distributed Secondary Control |
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474 | (1) |
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9.1.5 Neural-Network-Based Distributed Secondary Control |
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475 | (2) |
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9.1.6 Differential Evolution |
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477 | (1) |
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478 | (3) |
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481 | (6) |
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9.2 Optimal Control for Autonomous Microgrid |
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487 | (5) |
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487 | (1) |
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9.2.2 Autonomous Microgrid Controller |
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488 | (1) |
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489 | (1) |
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490 | (1) |
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491 | (1) |
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9.2.6 Coupling Inductance and Filter |
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491 | (1) |
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492 | (1) |
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492 | (1) |
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492 | (12) |
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9.3.1 Results and Discussions |
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493 | (2) |
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9.3.2 Nonlinear Time Domain Simulation |
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495 | (4) |
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9.3.3 Experimental Results |
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499 | (5) |
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9.4 Distributed Control for Autonomous Microgrid |
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504 | (17) |
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504 | (1) |
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9.4.2 Real-Time Digital Simulator |
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505 | (1) |
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9.4.3 Description of RTDS Hardware |
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506 | (2) |
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9.4.4 Description of RTDS Software |
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508 | (1) |
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9.4.5 Distributed Control Scheme |
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508 | (2) |
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9.4.6 RTDS Implementation |
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510 | (4) |
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514 | (1) |
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9.4.8 Comparison of RTDS and MATLAB Results |
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515 | (3) |
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9.4.9 Load Sharing During Faults |
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518 | (3) |
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9.5 Experimental Verification of Inverter-Based Microgrid |
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521 | (7) |
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523 | (1) |
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9.5.2 Experimental Results |
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524 | (4) |
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528 | (1) |
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528 | (3) |
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531 | (46) |
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10.1 Important Facts in Linear Algebra |
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531 | (5) |
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531 | (3) |
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10.1.2 Inner Product and Orthogonality |
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534 | (1) |
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10.1.3 Kronecker Product and Stack of Matrices |
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535 | (1) |
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10.2 Linear Transformations and Matrix Groups |
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536 | (4) |
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10.3 Elements of Graph Theory |
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540 | (3) |
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540 | (1) |
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10.3.2 Laplacian Spectrum of Graphs |
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541 | (1) |
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10.3.3 Properties of Adjacency Matrix |
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541 | (2) |
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543 | (8) |
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10.4.1 Inverse of Block Matrices |
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544 | (1) |
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10.4.2 Matrix Inversion Lemma |
|
|
545 | (1) |
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10.4.3 Range, Kernel, Rank and Eigenvectors |
|
|
546 | (3) |
|
10.4.4 Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices |
|
|
549 | (2) |
|
10.5 Singular Value Decomposition |
|
|
551 | (7) |
|
10.5.1 Geometric Interpretation |
|
|
553 | (1) |
|
|
554 | (1) |
|
10.5.3 Some Properties of the SVD |
|
|
555 | (2) |
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10.5.4 The QR Decomposition |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
|
558 | (2) |
|
10.6.1 Ackermann's Formula for Eigenvalue Assignment |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
|
559 | (1) |
|
|
560 | (1) |
|
|
560 | (5) |
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
10.7.4 Inequality 4 (Schur Complements) |
|
|
562 | (2) |
|
|
564 | (1) |
|
|
565 | (3) |
|
10.9 Linear Matrix Inequalities |
|
|
568 | (4) |
|
|
568 | (1) |
|
10.9.2 Some Standard Problems |
|
|
569 | (2) |
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
10.10 Lyapunov Map and Lyapunov Equation |
|
|
572 | (1) |
|
10.11 Persistence of Excitation and Sufficiently Rich Inputs |
|
|
573 | (3) |
|
10.12 Notes and References |
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
|
576 | (1) |
Index |
|
577 | |