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The crypto wars have raged for half a century.

In the 1970s, digital privacy activists prophesied the emergence of an Orwellian State, made possible by computer-mediated mass surveillance. The antidote: digital encryption.

The U.S. government warned encryption would not only prevent surveillance of law-abiding citizens, but of criminals, terrorists, and foreign spies, ushering in a rival dystopian future.

Both parties fought to defend the citizenry from what they believed the most perilous threats. The government tried to control encryption to preserve its surveillance capabilities; privacy activists armed citizens with cryptographic tools and challenged encryption regulations in the courts.

No clear victor has emerged from the crypto wars. Governments have failed to forge a framework to govern the, at times conflicting, civil liberties of privacy and security in the digital agean age when such liberties have an outsized influence on the citizenState power balance. Solving this problem is more urgent than ever.

Digital privacy will be one of the most important factors in how we architect twenty-first century societiesits management is paramount to our stewardship of democracy for future generations. We must elevate the quality of debate on cryptography, on how we govern security and privacy in our technology-infused world. Failure to end the crypto wars will result in societies sleepwalking into a future where the citizenState power balance is determined by a twentieth-century status quo unfit for this century, endangering both our privacy and security.

This book provides a history of the crypto wars, with the hope its chronicling sets a foundation for peace.
Preface xi
Prologue: A New Cryptological Era xv
Chapter 1 The Crypto Wars
1(14)
References
12(3)
Chapter 2 A Brief History Of Communications Revolutions
15(10)
2.1 The Written Word
15(2)
2.2 Printing Press
17(1)
2.3 Postal System
18(1)
2.4 Telegraph
19(1)
2.5 Telephone
20(1)
2.6 Communications Revolutions Summary
21(2)
References
23(2)
Chapter 3 The Cypherpunks
25(46)
3.1 The Most Extreme Crypto-Anarchist Manifestation: Assassination Politics
25(4)
3.2 Arise, Cypherpunks
29(4)
3.3 The Fear of Big Brother
33(1)
3.4 Cypherpunk Objectives
34(4)
3.4.1 No Government Cryptography Regulations: Freedom for the Bits!
35(1)
3.4.2 Anonymous Communications: A Shield from the Tyranny of the Majority
35(1)
3.4.3 Anonymous Economic Transactions (Cryptocurrencies)
36(1)
3.4.4 Whistleblowing Platforms to Constrain Governments: Falling the Beast
37(1)
3.5 Digital Insurgents: Code Is Law
38(1)
3.6 The Crypto Singularity
39(2)
3.7 How Anarchist Were the Cypherpunks?
41(2)
3.8 The Hacker Ethic
43(7)
3.9 Cypherpunks and Counterculture: Levitating the Pentagon
50(4)
3.10 The Source of the Cypherpunks' Distrust
54(6)
3.11 Cypherpunk Literature and Film
60(3)
References
63(8)
Chapter 4 Crypto War I (1966-1981): The Data Encryption Standard (Des)
71(40)
4.1 The Codebreakers: David Kahn Publishes a Cryptological Bible
71(3)
4.2 An Enigmatic German: Horst Feistel and Digital Dossiers
74(2)
4.3 The Demon Re-Christened
76(2)
4.4 Seeking a Data Encryption Standard
78(6)
4.5 Public Critique
84(6)
4.6 The Workshops: Government Attempts to Ease Public DES Concerns
90(2)
4.7 Senate DES Investigation
92(1)
4.8 The 1990s: Cypherpunks Plot DES' Demise
92(7)
4.9 DES: In Retrospect
99(4)
4.10 A Quarter Century of Protest
103(1)
References
104(7)
Chapter 5 Crypto War I (1966--1981): The Battle For Academic Freedom
111(46)
5.1 An Itinerate Cryptographer: Whitfield Diffie Meets Martin Hellman
111(1)
5.2 Diffie and Cryptology
112(2)
5.3 Hellman and Cryptology
114(1)
5.4 Public Key Cryptography: Solving the Key Distribution Problem
115(1)
5.5 New Directions in Cryptography
116(1)
5.6 The MIT Trio: Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman (RSA)
117(3)
5.7 Human Ingenuity: Testing RSA
120(2)
5.8 NSA Employee Warns Cryptographers against Publishing
122(5)
5.9 Government Concerns of ITAR and EAR Constitutionality in the 1970s--80s
127(2)
5.10 The National Science Foundation: The Cryptologists' Achilles' Heel?
129(3)
5.11 The Cryptographic Information Protection Act and a New NSA Director
132(2)
5.12 NSA Classifies Cryptographic Inventions
134(2)
5.13 The Sky Is Falling: NSA Engage Academia and Take Their Message Public
136(5)
5.14 Public Cryptography Study Group and the Voluntary Review System
141(3)
5.15 Adleman Receives Funding from an Unwanted Source
144(3)
5.16 Voluntary Review Loses Its Efficacy
147(1)
5.17 The First Crypto War: Summary
148(3)
5.18 Did the Digital Privacy Activists Make a Difference?
151(1)
References
152(5)
Chapter 6 Crypto War II (1991--2002): Digital Signature Standard (Dss) And Key Escrow (Clipper)
157(54)
6.1 Digital Signature Standard
157(11)
6.2 Key Escrow: Clipper Chip Genesis
168(5)
6.3 Key Escrow: Public Response
173(18)
6.4 Key Escrow: Son of Clipper
191(1)
6.5 Cryptography's Role in Securing the Information Society (CRISIS)
192(3)
6.6 Key Escrow: Clipper III
195(6)
References
201(10)
Chapter 7 Crypto War II (1991--2002): Export Battles
211(108)
7.1 Outlawing Cryptography: 1991 Comprehensive Counter-Terrorism Act
211(3)
7.2 Encryption for the Masses: Phil Zimmermann
214(6)
7.3 PGP: v2.0 and Cypherpunks' Launch
220(2)
7.4 PGP: Investigation of Phil Zimmermann
222(2)
7.5 PGP: Publicity and Encryption's Greater Good Argument
224(4)
7.6 PGP: Resolving the Patent Issue and MIT Protection
228(2)
7.7 PGP: Circumventing Export Controls
230(3)
7.8 PGP: Conclusion of the Zimmermann Investigation
233(5)
7.9 Code as Constitutionally Protected Speech I: Daniel Bernstein
238(19)
7.10 Code as Constitutionally Protected Speech III: Applied Cryptography
257(9)
7.11 Code as Constitutionally Protected Speech III: Peter Junger
266(11)
7.12 Encryption and Congress
277(16)
7.13 Subverting Foreign Governments' Crypto
293(3)
7.14 The Towers Fall
296(3)
7.15 The Second Crypto War: Summary
299(1)
References
300(19)
Chapter 8 Crypto War III (2013--Present): The Snowden Era
319(86)
8.1 Snowden Ignites Crypto War III
319(5)
8.2 NSA Encryption Access Program: Operation BULLRUN
324(11)
8.3 Snowden's Impact
335(6)
8.4 FBI Targets Encryption Keys of Snowden's Email Provider, Lavabit
341(6)
8.5 Going Dark: FBI Encryption Fears
347(4)
8.6 Apple Defies the Courts: San Bernardino and Exceptional Access
351(10)
8.7 Burr-Feinstein Exceptional Access Law
361(4)
8.8 Ghost Users: Crypto Wars in the UK
365(6)
8.9 The Trump Years
371(17)
8.10 Biden Victory
388(1)
8.11 The Third Crypto War: Summary
389(2)
References
391(14)
Chapter 9 Conclusion
405(8)
9.1 Conclusion: Moving the Debate Forwards
405(1)
9.2 Where Do We Go from Here?
406(5)
References
411(2)
Acknowledgments 413(2)
About the Author 415(2)
Index 417
Dr Craig Jarvis is an independent researcher specialising in the nexus of international security and technology. Craig is the author of Crypto Wars, a political history of encryption, has written extensively on cyber intelligence, and is soon to publish a book on cyberterrorism. Craig guest lectures at Royal Holloway, University of London, and University of Oxford. Craig sits on the Offensive Cyber Working Group's College of Experts, and holds a PhD in cyber security and history.