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E-raamat: Electrical Contacts: Fundamentals, Applications and Technology

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Braunovic (technical physics, U. of Belgrade, Yugoslavia), Myshkin, and Konchits (both National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Russia), present this text covering theory and applications of electrical contacts in modern engineering, designed for electrical engineers and postgraduate engineering students. Eleven chapters provide analytical models, techniques, methodologies, and tools used to assess and maintain the reliability of moving ad permanent electrical contacts. Applications include automotive and aerospace technologies, high- and low-power contact joints, sliding and braking contacts, and electromechanical systems. Material integrates research in mechanical engineering and tribology with new data on electrical current transfer, especially at the micro/nanoscale. Annotation ©2007 Book News, Inc., Portland, OR (booknews.com)

Various factors affect the performance of electrical contacts, including tribological, mechanical, electrical, and materials aspects. Although these behaviors have been studied for many years, they are not widely used or understood in practice. Combining approaches used across the globe, Electrical Contacts: Fundamentals, Applications, and Technology integrates advances in research and development in the tribological, material, and analytical aspects of electrical contacts with new data on electrical current transfer at the micro- and nanoscales.

Taking an application-oriented approach, the authors illustrate how material characteristics, tribological behavior, and loading impact the degradation of contacts, formation of intermetallics, and overall reliability and performance. Coverage is divided broadly into three sections, with the first focused on mechanics, tribology, materials, current and heat transfer, and basic reliability issues of electrical contacts. The next section explores applications, such as power connections, electronic connections, and sliding contacts, while the final section presents the diagnostic and monitoring techniques used to investigate and measure phenomena occurring at electrical contact interfaces. Numerous references to current literature reflect the fact that this book is the most comprehensive survey in the field.

Explore an impressive collection of data, theory, and practical applications in Electrical Contacts: Fundamentals, Applications, and Technology, a critical tool for anyone investigating or designing electrical equipment with improved performance and reliability in mind.

Arvustused

"There are nearly 1000 references cited in this book, making it an excellent resource and reference for the practicing engineer in power engineering, semiconductor connection electronics, or contact material science. Also, those wanting to quickly learn about the fundamentals of contact science will find this book to be well written and easy to read yet still contains very good technical depth to provide a sound understanding of the theory being presented."

In IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, May/June 2008, Vol. 24, No. 3

"[ This book] takes a practical applications approach to the subject and presents valuable design information for practicing mechanical and electrical engineers. The authors of this book have many years of research and practical experience. One unusual and interesting aspect of the book's development is that it comes through the cooperation of the different approaches to the subject from the West and the East. They have succeeded in making the bulk of research and engineering data equally clear for all the segments of the international audience." -From the Foreword by Paul G. Slade, editor of the bestselling book Electrical Contacts: Principles and Applications

Part I Fundamentals of Electrical Contacts
1(260)
Milenko Braunovic
Valery V. Konchits
Nikolai K. Myshkin
Introduction to Electrical Contacts
3(6)
Introduction
3(3)
Summary of Basic Features
6(3)
Contact Mechanics
9(26)
Surface of Solids
9(2)
Surface Topography
11(6)
Modern Techniques of Measuring Surface Parameters
17(4)
Contact of Smooth Surfaces
21(6)
Plastic and Elastoplastic Contacts
23(4)
Contact between Rough Surfaces
27(8)
Greenwood-Williamson Model
27(2)
Multilevel Model
29(4)
Transition from Elastic to Plastic Contact
33(2)
Tribology
35(36)
Friction
35(12)
Laws of Friction
35(3)
Real Contact Area
38(1)
Interfacial Bonds (Adhesion Component of Friction)
38(3)
Deformation at Friction
41(1)
Friction as a Function of Operating Conditions
42(2)
The Preliminary Displacement
44(2)
Stick-Slip Motion
46(1)
Wear
47(18)
Stages of Wear
48(1)
Simple Model of Wear
48(2)
Basic Mechanisms of Wear
50(2)
Abrasive Wear
52(4)
Adhesive Wear
56(1)
Prow Formation
57(1)
Fatigue Wear
57(2)
Corrosive Wear
59(1)
Fretting Wear
59(3)
Delamination
62(2)
Erosion
64(1)
Combined Wear Modes
64(1)
Lubrication
65(2)
Current Trends in Tribology
67(4)
Contact Materials
71(78)
Metallic Contact Materials
71(18)
Properties of Contact Materials
71(1)
Copper
71(4)
Aluminum
75(1)
Silver
76(2)
Platinum
78(1)
Palladium
78(1)
Gold
79(1)
Rhodium
79(1)
Tungsten
79(1)
Nickel
80(1)
Metals and Alloys for Heavy- and Medium-Duty Contacts
80(3)
Metals and Alloys for Light-Duty Contacts
83(2)
Materials for Liquid-Metal Contacts
85(2)
Spring Contact Materials
87(1)
Shape-Memory Alloys and Their Applications in Electrical Contacts
88(1)
Coatings for Electrical Contacts
89(22)
Basic Requirements
89(2)
Surface Engineering Technologies
91(1)
Surface Segregation
92(2)
Ion Implantation
94(1)
Electroplating
94(3)
Electroless Plating
97(1)
Cladding
97(2)
Chemical Deposition
99(1)
Plating by Swabbing
99(1)
Physical Vapor Deposition Technology
99(1)
Electro-Spark Deposition (ESD)
100(1)
Intermediate Sublayers
101(1)
Multilayered Contacts
101(1)
Coating Materials
102(1)
Coatings for Power Connectors (Copper and Aluminum Joints)
102(2)
Coatings for Electronic/Electrical Applications
104(7)
Composite Contact Materials
111(14)
Composite Materials for Contacts of Commutating Apparatuses
111(7)
Self-Lubricating Composites for Sliding Contacts
118(7)
Nanostructured Materials
125(24)
``Bulk'' Properties Nanomaterials
127(1)
Mechanical Properties
127(4)
Electrical Properties
131(5)
Magnetic Properties
136(1)
Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR)
136(2)
Ballistic Magnetoresistance (BMR)
138(2)
Nanotubes
140(2)
Thermal Stability
142(1)
Characterization Techniques for Nanostructured Materials
143(1)
Nanoindentation
143(1)
Scanning Probe Microscopes
144(5)
Current and Heat Transfer across the Contact Interface
149(56)
Contact Resistance
149(31)
Circular and Noncircular a-Spots
149(5)
Effect of Signal Frequency
154(3)
Size Effects, Nanocontacts
157(3)
Effect of Surface Films
160(6)
Effect of Contact Geometry
166(6)
Conductivity of Rough Contact
172(8)
Interfacial Heating
180(25)
Principles of Heat Conduction Theory
181(2)
Simple Problems of Heat Conduction Theory
183(5)
Contact Spots Heated by Electrical Current
188(1)
Film-Free Metal Contact
188(2)
Heating of Contact Spots Having Surface Films
190(4)
Field Intensity in the Contact Clearance with Tunnel-Conductive Films
194(1)
Formulation of Heat Problem with Friction
195(3)
Flash Temperature of Electrical Contact
198(2)
Thermal Instability of Friction Contact
200(1)
Thermoelastic Instability
201(1)
Instability Caused by Temperature-Dependent Coefficient of Friction
202(1)
Instability Related to Friction Mode Variation
202(3)
Reliability Issues in Electrical Contacts
205(56)
Significance of Electrical Contacts Reliability
205(1)
Electrical Contact Requirements
206(1)
Factors Affecting Reliability
206(2)
Connection Degradation Mechanisms
208(40)
Contact Area
209(2)
Oxidation
211(1)
Corrosion
212(2)
Fretting
214(3)
Mechanisms of Fretting
217(2)
Factors Affecting Fretting
219(1)
Fretting in Electrical Contacts
219(2)
Contact Load
221(2)
Frequency of Motion
223(1)
Slip Amplitude
224(1)
Relative Humidity
224(2)
Temperature
226(1)
Effect of Current
226(2)
Surface Finish
228(1)
Hardness
229(1)
Metal Oxide
230(1)
Coefficient of Friction
230(1)
Electrochemical Factor
230(1)
Intermetallic Compounds
230(2)
Effect of Electrical Current
232(5)
Electromigration
237(3)
Stress Relaxation and Creep
240(1)
Nature of the Effect of Electric Current
241(1)
Effect of Electric Current on Stress Relaxation
242(5)
Thermal Expansion
247(1)
Impact of Connection Degradation
248(13)
Prognostic Model for Contact Remaining Life
250(6)
Economical Consequences of Contact Deterioration
256(2)
Power Quality
258(3)
Part II Applications of Electrical Contacts
261(234)
Milenko Braunovic
Valery V. Konchits
Nikolai K. Myshkin
Power Connections
263(46)
Types of Power Connectors
263(1)
Design Features and Degradation Mechanisms
263(29)
Bolted Connectors
263(6)
Fretting in Bolted Connectors
269(2)
Fretting in Aluminum Connections
271(1)
Intermetallics
272(3)
Creep and Stress Relaxation
275(1)
Bus-Stab Contacts
276(3)
Compression Connectors
279(2)
Degradation Mechanisms in Compression Connectors
281(1)
Corrosion
282(1)
Fretting in Compression Connectors
283(1)
Mechanical Connectors
284(1)
Binding-Head Screw Connectors
285(4)
Insulation Piercing Connectors
289(1)
Wedge Connectors
289(1)
Welded Connectors
290(2)
Mitigating Measures
292(14)
Contact Area-Connector Design
292(2)
Contact Pressure
294(2)
Surface Preparation
296(1)
Mechanical Contact Devices
297(3)
Retightening
300(1)
Bimetallic Inserts
301(1)
Transition Washers
301(1)
Multilam Contact Elements
302(1)
Shape-Memory Alloy Mechanical Devices
302(1)
Self-Repairing Joints
303(1)
Lubrication: Contact Aid Compounds
304(2)
Installation Procedures
306(3)
Electronic Connections
309(60)
Types of Electronic Connections
309(1)
Materials for Electronic Connections
309(8)
Solder Materials
310(2)
Lead-Free Solders
312(1)
Tin
312(1)
Tin-Silver
312(1)
Tin--Silver--Bismuth
313(1)
Tin--Silver--Copper
313(1)
Tin--Silver--Copper--Antimony
314(1)
Tin--Silver--Antimony
314(1)
Tin--Bismuth
314(1)
Tin--Copper
315(1)
Tin--Indium
315(1)
Tin--Indium--Silver
316(1)
Tin--Zinc
316(1)
Tin--Zinc--Silver
316(1)
Tin--Zinc--Silver--Aluminum--Gallium
317(1)
Degradation Mechanisms in Electronic Connections
317(44)
Porosity
319(3)
Corrosion/Contamination
322(1)
Pore Corrosion
322(1)
Creep Corrosion
323(1)
Tarnishing
324(3)
Fretting
327(7)
Frictional Polymerization
334(2)
Intermetallic Compounds
336(12)
Creep and Stress Relaxation
348(5)
Electromigration
353(4)
Whiskers
357(4)
Mitigating Measures
361(8)
Effect of Coating
361(1)
Gold Coatings
361(1)
Palladium and Palladium Alloys
362(2)
Tin Coatings
364(1)
Nickel and Nickel-Base Alloys
364(1)
Effect of Lubrication
364(5)
Sliding Contacts
369(126)
Tribology of Electrical Contacts
369(7)
Interrelation of Friction and Electrical Processes
370(1)
Role of Boundary Films
371(1)
Main Means of Improving Reliability of Sliding Contacts
371(2)
Tribophysical Aspects in the Development of Sliding Contacts
373(3)
Dry Metal Contacts
376(38)
Low-Current Contacts
376(1)
Effects of Low Current and Electrical Field on Friction
377(1)
Effect of Interfacial Shear
378(2)
Adhesion, Transfer, Wear Debris Formation, and Surface Transformation
380(6)
High-Current Contacts
386(1)
Effects of Electrical Current on Tribological Behavior
386(4)
Influence of Electric Fields
390(2)
Effect of Velocity
392(1)
Effect of Material Combination of Contacting Members
393(1)
Electroplastic Effect in Sliding Contact
394(2)
Friction and Current Transfer in Metal Fiber Brush Contacts
396(4)
Stability of the Contact Resistance. Electrical Noise
400(1)
Contact Noise in Closed Connections
400(2)
Electrical Noise in Sliding Contacts
402(12)
Lubricated Metal Contacts
414(40)
Introduction. Lubrication Factors
414(1)
Electrical Properties of Lubricating Boundary Layers
415(4)
Conductivity of Lubricated Contacts
419(1)
Effect of Lubricant on Conductivity near the Contact Spots
419(1)
Effect of Lubricant on Conductivity of Contact Spots
420(7)
Experimental Studies of Electric Conductivity of Lubricated Contacts
427(3)
Contact Resistance between Very Smooth Lubricated Surfaces
430(1)
Temperature Dependencies of Contact Conductivity
431(2)
Lubrication Factors in Sliding Contacts
433(1)
Effect of Lubricant Origin
434(1)
Lubricant Durability
435(3)
Tribochemical Aspects of Lubrication
438(3)
Effect of Velocity in Light-Current Contacts
441(1)
Effects of Lubricant Contact Properties
442(2)
Current Passage and Friction in High-Current Lubricated Contacts
444(5)
Lubricants for Electrical Contacts
449(1)
Lubricants for Sliding Electric Switch Contacts
450(1)
Lubricants for Sliding Contacts of Sensors
451(3)
Selection of Contact Lubricants
454(1)
Composite Contacts
454(41)
Effect of Intermediate Layers on Electrical Characteristics
455(1)
Structure and Electrical Properties of Intermediate Films
456(4)
Mechanism of Current Passage through the Contact with Intermediate Films
460(7)
Influence of Polarity on Conductivity in Composite-Metal Contact
467(4)
The ``Lubricating'' Effect of Electrical Current
471(1)
Effect of Current on Friction Characteristics
471(2)
Mechanism of the ``Lubricating'' Action of the Electric Current
473(4)
Effect of Brush Material on Friction Behavior with Electric Current
477(2)
Electrical Wear
479(1)
Wear of Currentless Contacts
479(1)
Effect of Current on Wear
480(3)
Factors Leading to Electrical Wear in the Absence of Sparking
483(6)
Influence of the Electric Field in the Clearance
489(2)
Wear with Sparking and Arcing
491(2)
Some Ways to Reduce Electrical Wear
493(2)
Part III Diagnostic and Monitoring Technologies
495(60)
Milenko Braunovic
Valery V. Konchits
Nikolai K. Myshkin
Electrical Methods in Tribology
497(32)
Surface Characterization
497(6)
Diagnosis of Contact Area and Friction Regimes
503(8)
Formation of Contact Area
503(5)
Control of Sliding Contact with the Presence of Oxide Films
508(1)
Experimental Study of Metallic Contact Spots Formation
509(2)
Evaluation of Tribological Performance of Materials and Lubricants
511(18)
Evaluation of Load-Bearing Capacity and Lubricity of Surface Films
511(4)
Estimation of Lubricant Interlayer Shear Strength under Imperfect Lubrication
515(2)
Evaluation of Thermal Stability of Materials and Lubricants by Electrical Methods
517(2)
Control of Surface Coatings and Films
519(2)
Novel Systems for Measuring and Analysis of Contact Characteristics
521(2)
Method of ``Triboscopy''
523(6)
Monitoring Technologies
529(26)
Thermal Measurements
530(12)
Infrared Thermography
532(1)
Basic Features of Infrared Thermography
532(2)
Types of Infrared Thermal Systems
534(4)
SME Temperature Indicators
538(2)
Temperature Stickers (Labels)
540(1)
Remote Temperature Sensors
541(1)
Resistance Measurements
542(3)
Monitoring Contact Load (Pressure)
545(1)
Ultrasonic Measurements
546(2)
Wireless Monitoring
548(4)
Cost Benefits of Monitoring and Diagnostic Techniques
552(3)
Appendix 1: Methods of Description of Rough Surface 555(10)
Appendix 2: Shape-Memory Materials 565(20)
Appendix 3: Electrical Contact Tables 585(14)
References 599(42)
Index 641


Braunovic, Milenko; Myshkin, Nikolai K.; Konchits, Valery V.