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E-raamat: Electrical Steels: Performance and applications, Volume 2

(Cardiff University, UK), (Cardiff University, School of Engineering, Magnetics and Materials Group, UK), , (Cardiff University, UK)
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  • Sari: Energy Engineering
  • Ilmumisaeg: 23-May-2019
  • Kirjastus: Institution of Engineering and Technology
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781785619731
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Electrical Steels: Performance and applications, Volume 2Suurem pilt
  • Formaat: PDF+DRM
  • Sari: Energy Engineering
  • Ilmumisaeg: 23-May-2019
  • Kirjastus: Institution of Engineering and Technology
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781785619731
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Electrical steels are critical components of magnetic cores used in applications ranging from large rotating machines, including energy generating equipment, and transformers to small instrument transformers and harmonic filters. Presented over two volumes, this comprehensive handbook provides full coverage of the state-of-the-art in electrical steels.



Volume 2 describes performance and outlines applications of electrical steels. Topics covered include localised characteristics of electrical steels; practical properties of electrical steels; other electrical steels; prediction of losses in electrical steels; application of electrical steels in transformer cores; applications of electrical steels in rotating electrical machines; non-sinusoidal magnetisation and applications; magnetic building factors in electrical steel cores; use of amorphous ribbon and nano-materials in transformer cores; electrical machine core vibration and noise; approaches to predictions and measurements of flux density and loss distributions in electrical machine cores; the application of international standards to magnetic alloys and steels; electrical steels and renewable energy systems; environmental impact of electrical steels; and typical performance data of commercial electrical steels.



The companion Volume 1 covers the fundamentals and basic concepts of electrical steels.
Acknowledgements xv
Preface xvii
Common acronyms, symbols and abbreviations used in the text xxiii
Introduction to Volume 2 xlv
About the authors xlvii
1 Localised characteristics of electrical steels
1(70)
1.1 Overview of content of
Chapter 1
1(1)
1.2 Effects of grain structure on domains, losses and magnetostriction in GO steel
2(1)
1.2.1 Static domain structures
2(2)
1.2.2 Presence and effect of lancet domains
4(2)
1.2.3 Effect of grain misorientation on surface domain structures
6(1)
1.2.4 Effect of grain misorientation on losses and magnetostriction
7(3)
1.3 Estimation of losses in single crystals of SiFe
10(3)
1.3.1 Hysteresis loss caused by motion of a single domain wall
10(1)
1.3.2 Total loss associated with a single domain wall in GO steel
11(2)
1.4 Significance of the width of main domains in GO steels
13(2)
1.5 Domain wall bowing in GO steel
15(2)
1.6 Combined effect of main and supplementary domains in GO steel
17(6)
1.6.1 Local effects of thickness on losses
18(3)
1.6.2 Effect of grain size on losses
21(2)
1.7 Wall spacing and losses in grains of GO SiFe under a.c. magnetisation
23(12)
1.7.1 Effects related to main wall spacing
23(5)
1.7.2 Grain-to-grain interactions across grain boundaries in GO steels
28(2)
1.7.3 Domain refinement processes
30(5)
1.8 Domain studies in NO electrical steels
35(2)
1.9 Internal domain structure in GO steel
37(1)
1.10 Rotational losses in single grains
37(2)
1.11 Localised magnetostriction
39(4)
1.11.1 Magnetostriction in single grains of GO steel
39(2)
1.11.2 A hypothetical model of the effect of surrounding grains on the magnetostriction of a single grain
41(1)
1.11.3 Localised stress sensitivity of magnetostriction of GO steel
42(1)
1.12 Surface magnetic features of GO steel
43(9)
1.12.1 Background
43(3)
1.12.2 Variation of the tangential component of surface field
46(2)
1.12.3 Localised flux density and loss distribution
48(4)
1.13 Losses under PWM excitation
52(1)
1.14 Defects and precipitates
53(1)
1.15 Analysis of the stress due to the coating on GO steel
54(7)
1.15.1 Coating-induced stress
54(2)
1.15.2 Differential contraction mechanism
56(2)
1.15.3 Total stress induced during the coating processes
58(1)
1.15.4 Practical separation of effects of coating stresses
59(2)
1.16 Barkhausen effect
61(10)
References
62(9)
2 Practical properties of electrical steels
71(1)
2.1 Permeability of electrical steels
71(1)
2.2 Losses
72(8)
2.2.1 Loss separation in commercial electrical steels
76(1)
2.2.2 Rotational losses
76(4)
2.3 Stress sensitivity of losses
80(1)
2.3.1 Introduction
80(1)
2.3.2 Stress sensitivity of NO steel
80(1)
2.3.3 Stress sensitivity of GO steel
80(1)
2.4 Magnetostriction
81(7)
2.4.1 Assessment of stress sensitivity
81(2)
2.4.2 Aspects of low magnetostriction GO steels
83(2)
2.4.3 Effect of coating on stress sensitivity of magnetostriction of GO steel
85(3)
2.5 Domain refinement of GO steels
88(10)
2.5.1 Background
88(1)
2.5.2 Effectiveness of domain refinement techniques
89(2)
2.5.3 Prototyping and commercial methods of domain refinement
91(3)
2.5.4 Other aspect of domain refinement
94(2)
2.5.5 Two-sided scribing
96(1)
2.5.6 Relationship between domain refinement and transformer characteristics
97(1)
2.6 Angular dependence of loss in electrical steel
98(7)
2.6.1 NO steel
98(2)
2.6.2 GO steel
100(5)
2.7 High and low-field properties of electrical steel
105(6)
2.7.1 High flux density characteristics of GO steel
105(1)
2.7.2 Low flux density characteristics
106(5)
2.8 Effect of d.c. magnetisation bias
111(3)
2.9 Performance of NO steels under PWM waveforms
114(5)
2.9.1 Examples of loss variation with flux density, magnetising frequency and sheet thickness
115(2)
2.9.2 Comparison between loss components in NO and GO steels under PWM excitation
117(2)
2.10 Coatings and surface roughness
119(4)
2.10.1 Coating on NO steel
119(3)
2.10.2 Coatings on GO steel
122(1)
2.11 Current and future trends in electrical steels
123(1)
2.11.1 Progress in recent years
123(1)
2.1 1.2 Drivers for improved electrical steels
123(1)
2.1 1.3 Other factors
124(2)
2.1 1.4 Possibilities for incremental improvements
126(7)
References
127(6)
3 Other electrical steels
133(1)
3.1 High silicon steel
133(1)
3.1.1 Background and potential
133(2)
3.1.2 Methods of increasing alloying content by chemical diffusion
135(5)
3.1.3 Commercial material
140(4)
3.2 Cube-oriented electrical steel
144(1)
3.3 Ultra-thin and automotive grade electrical steel
145(10)
3.3.1 Ultra-thin electrical steel
147(2)
3.3.2 Automotive NO steels
149(10)
References
155(1)
4 Prediction of losses in electrical steels
155(1)
4.1 Introduction
155(1)
4.2 Hysteresis modelling
155(2)
4.2.1 Preisach models
157(1)
4.2.2 Jiles-Atherton Model
157(1)
4.3 Micro-magnetic approaches to loss prediction
157(1)
4.4 Loss separation methods
158(2)
4.5 Loss prediction under arbitrary flux density waveforms
160(5)
4.6 Statistical theory of losses (STL)
165(1)
4.7 Other approaches to loss prediction
166(1)
4.8 An anecdotal historic perspective
166(7)
References
168(5)
5 Application of electrical steels in transformer cores
173(1)
5.1 General background and types of transformers
173(11)
5.2 Basic theory
184(2)
5.3 Losses and efficiency
186(2)
5.4 Equivalent circuit
188(1)
5.5 Basic forms of transformers incorporating GO steel cores
189(3)
5.6 Flux distribution in a 3-phase stacked cores
192(2)
5.7 Strip wound cores
194(4)
5.8 Stacked cores
198(12)
5.9 Flux and loss distributions in joints of stacked cores
210(18)
5.9.1 The double overlap joint
212(3)
5.9.2 The butt-lap joint
215(2)
5.9.3 The 45° mitred overlap joint
217(1)
5.9.4 The T-joint
217(11)
5.10 Packet-to-packet variation of properties of laminations in stacked cores
228(4)
5.10.1 100 kVA 3-phase, 3-limb, 9-packet, single step-lap core [ 74]
228(1)
5.10.2 12 MVA, 3-phase, 3-limb, 29 step, core [ 96]
229(3)
5.11 Some effects of mixing grades of steels in a core
232(3)
5.12 Effect of holes in laminations
235(2)
5.13 Effects of coating defects and edge burrs
237(12)
5.13.1 Interlaminar voltage and eddy currents due to core defects
240(4)
5.13.2 Eddy current formation due to core defects
244(1)
5.13.3 Detection of core faults
244(1)
5.13.4 Investigations of the effects of artificial burrs
244(5)
5.14 Circulating flux harmonics in transformer cores
249(5)
5.15 Prediction of flux and loss distributions in cores
254(3)
5.16 Capitalisation of transformer losses
257(3)
5.17 The global power transformer market
260(11)
References
261(10)
6 Applications of electrical steel in rotating electrical machines
271(1)
6.1 Basic principles of motors and generators
272(2)
6.2 The d.c. rotating machine
274(4)
6.2.1 Commutator action
275(1)
6.2.2 The magnetic field of a d.c. machine
276(2)
6.3 Practical layout of the d.c. machine
278(1)
6.4 D.C. generators
279(1)
6.5 D.C. motors
280(1)
6.6 Efficiency and building factor of a d.c. machine
281(2)
6.7 A.C. machines
283(13)
6.7.1 The induction motor
283(9)
6.7.2 The synchronous machine
292(4)
6.8 Soft magnetic materials used in small rotating machines
296(2)
6.9 Categorisation of small motors
298(6)
6.9.1 Stepper motor
300(1)
6.9.2 Universal motor
300(1)
6.9.3 Hysteresis motor
300(1)
6.9.4 Brushless d.c. motor
300(2)
6.9.5 Reluctance motor
302(1)
6.9.6 Switched reluctance motor
302(1)
6.9.7 Shaded pole motor
303(1)
6.9.8 Linear motor
303(1)
6.10 SMC pow der cores
304(2)
6.11 Flux and loss distributions in rotating machine cores
306(9)
6.12 Flux density and losses in motors under PWM voltage excitation
315(5)
6.13 Use of electrical machines in variable speed drives
320(1)
6.14 Generators in wind power systems
321(1)
6.15 Laminated cores in rotating machines
321(5)
6.15.1 Traditional lamination route
322(3)
6.15.2 Slinky-laminated cores
325(1)
6.16 Rotating electrical machines in automotive applications
326(3)
6.17 Machine testing
329(1)
6.17.1 No-load test
329(1)
6.17.2 Locked-rotor test
329(1)
6.17.3 Temperature rise
330(1)
References
330(7)
7 Non-sinusoidal magnetisation and applications
337(1)
7.1 Introduction
337(1)
7.2 Power electronic converters
337(6)
7.2.1 Square wave inverter
335(1)
7.2.2 PWM inverter
335(6)
7.2.3 Matrix converters
341(1)
7.2.4 Space vector modulation
341(2)
7.3 Losses under distorted waveforms
343(5)
7.4 Loss models under distorted magnetisation waveforms
348(3)
7.5 Influence of distorted waveforms on material properties
351(1)
7.6 Measurement and testing under non-sinusoidal magnetisation
352(5)
References
353(4)
8 Magnetic building factors in electrical steel cores
357(1)
8.1 Background
357(1)
8.2 Definition of the magnetic building factor
357(1)
8.3 Regional building factors within a core
358(4)
8.4 Causes and prediction of the BF
362(9)
8.5 Influence of material grade on the BF
371(3)
8.6 BF of stacked cores incorporating nanocrystalline and amorphous ribbon
374(5)
References
375(4)
9 Use of amorphous ribbon and nano-materials in transformer cores
379(1)
9.1 Amorphous ribbon in transformer cores
379(6)
9.2 Nano-crystalline alloys
385(1)
9.3 High silicon steel
386(1)
9.4 Traction transformer applications
387(4)
9.5 Flux distributions in stacked amorphous transformer cores
391(8)
References
394(5)
10 Electrical machine core vibration and noise
399(1)
10.1 Noise and vibration terminology and analysis
401(6)
10.1.1 Acoustic noise
401(2)
10.1.2 Surface vibration
403(1)
10.1.3 Resonance effects in electrical steel and transformers
404(3)
10.2 Historical perspective of transformer noise
407(2)
10.3 Measurement of no-load and load noise
409(3)
10.4 Magnetic core noise
412(1)
10.5 Origins of magnetic core vibration
413(8)
10.5.1 Dimensional changes due to magnetostriction
416(2)
10.5.2 Dimensional changes due to Maxwell forces
418(1)
10.5.3 Combined effects of magnetostriction and Maxwell forces
419(2)
10.6 Correlation between magnetostriction, core vibration and noise
421(7)
10.6.1 Top and side surfaces
425(1)
10.6.2 Front surface
425(2)
10.6.3 Magnetostriction characteristics
427(1)
10.7 Effect of phase displacement on noise of 3-phase transformer cores
428(1)
10.8 Effect of core design and material on noise
429(3)
10.8.1 Core material
429(1)
10.8.2 Comer overlap length
430(1)
10.8.3 Number of steps
430(1)
10.8.4 Number of laminations per ste
431(1)
10.8.5 T-joint configuration
431(1)
10.8.6 Clamping stress
431(1)
10.9 Modelling and analysis of core vibration
432(2)
10.10 Amorphous material in power transformers
434(1)
10.11 Reduction of noise of transformer cores
435(2)
10.12 Acoustic noise from rotating electrical machines
437(12)
10.12.1 Background
437(1)
10.12.2 Role of magnetostriction
438(4)
References
442(7)
11 Approaches to predictions and measurements of flux density and loss distributions in electrical machine cores
449(1)
11.1 Introduction
449(2)
11.2 Maxwell's equations
451(2)
11.3 Computational electromagnetics
453(5)
11.4 Power-loss prediction in magnetic cores
458(2)
11.5 Justification of continued use of experimental methods
460(1)
11.6 Experimental methods
460(7)
References
464(3)
12 The application of international standards to magnetic alloys and steels
467(1)
12.1 The development of national and international standards
467(3)
12.1.1 The International Electrotechnical Commission
468(2)
12.2 IEC TC 68 Magnetic alloys and steels
470(6)
12.2.1 The relationships between the IEC and the European National Committees
471(5)
12.3 Building standards for electrical steels - grain oriented material
476(4)
12.3.1 Measurement standards the Epstein test
476(2)
12.3.2 Measurement standards the single sheet test
478(2)
12.4 Building standards for electrical steels - non-oriented materials
480(3)
12.5 Standards relating to the geometrical characteristics of electrical steels
483(1)
12.6 Standards relating to the technological characteristics of electrical steels
484(2)
12.7 Standards for non-oriented and grain oriented material over the medium frequency range of 400-10,000 Hz
486(1)
12.8 The development of technical report investigations prior to drafting a standard
486(2)
12.8.1 Technical report on magnetostriction
487(1)
12.9 Changes in the European organisations
488(1)
References
488(1)
13 Electrical steels and renewable energy systems
489(1)
13.1 Introduction
489(4)
13.2 Biomass
493(1)
13.3 Geothennal energy
493(1)
13.4 Hydroelectric
493(1)
13.5 Marine energy
494(1)
13.6 Solar schemes
495(1)
13.7 Wind energy
496(2)
13.8 Small modular nuclear reactors (SMRs)
498(1)
13.9 Historic and predicted growth of electrical power generation from all sources
498(2)
13.10 Grid development
500(3)
13.11 Impact on harmonics
503(1)
13.12 Impact of electric vehicles
503(2)
13.13 Large-scale energy storage
505(1)
13.14 The future of non-renewable sources
506(3)
References
507(2)
14 Environmental impact of electrical steels
509(1)
14.1 Introduction
509(1)
14.2 Global impact
510(1)
14.3 Impact of losses from GO steel on the environment
511(4)
14.4 Impact of losses in NO steels on the environment
515(4)
14.5 The impact of losses in electrical steels on greenhouse gas emission
519(1)
14.6 Efficiency standards for transformers and motors
519(4)
14.6.1 Transformers
520(2)
14.6.2 Motors
522(1)
14.7 Perceived barriers to the use of TOC concepts
523(1)
14.8 Concluding remarks
524(5)
References
526(3)
15 Typical magnetic performance data of commercial electrical steels
529(1)
15.1 Introduction to sources of performance data
529(2)
15.1.1 A.C. measurements
529(1)
15.1.2 D.C. measurements
530(1)
15.1.3 Magnetostriction measurements
530(1)
15.1.4 Magnetic measurements under applied stress
531(1)
15.1.5 Magnetic measurements at elevated temperature
531(1)
15.2 Ranges of standard characteristics of non-oriented steels
531(15)
15.2.1 D.C. B-H and permeability characteristics of NO materials
531(2)
15.2.2 A.C. B-H, permeability and loss characteristics
533(1)
15.2.3 Comparison of a.c. characteristics of NO electrical steels
533(11)
15.2.4 Examples of a.c. B-H loop examples in NO electrical steels
544(2)
15.3 Ranges of standard characteristics of grain oriented steels
546(23)
15.3.1 D.C. B-H and permeability characteristics
546(3)
15.3.2 A.C. B-H, permeability and loss characteristics
549(6)
15.3.3 Comparison of a.c. characteristics of GO electrical steels
555(12)
15.3.4 Examples of a.c. B-H loop examples in GO electrical steels
567(2)
15.4 Examples of loss separation in electrical steels
569(3)
15.5 Characteristics at low and high flux densities
572(2)
15.6 Characteristics under non-sinusoidal magnetisation conditions
574(4)
15.7 Stress dependence of loss and permeability
578(11)
15.7.1 NO materials
578(4)
15.7.2 GO Materials
582(7)
15.8 Stress dependence of magnetostriction
589(3)
15.8.1 NO materials
539(52)
15.8.2 GO Materials
591(1)
15.9 Effect of temperature
592(4)
15.10 Rotational magnetisation
596(9)
Reference
604(1)
Index 605
Anthony Moses is Emeritus Professor of Magnetics at Cardiff University, UK where he was previously Director of the Wolfson Centre for Magnetics. He has overseen numerous research projects and supervised over 100 postgraduate projects focused on the properties, characterisation and applications of soft magnetic materials.



Philip Anderson is a Senior Lecturer in the Magnetics and Materials Group at Cardiff University's School of Engineering, and is a member of the British and International Standards Committees on Magnetic Alloys and Steels.



Keith Jenkins worked at British Steel Electrical Steels Research Department, Orb Works for 35 years in various technical and research roles and recently became an honorary visiting professor at Cardiff University.



Hugh Stanbury was Technical Manager at Orb Electrical Steels, Cogent Power Ltd. He is Chair of the British Standards Institution Technical Committee for Magnetic Alloys and Steels and is a former Chair of the International Electrotechnical Commission Technical Committee 68 for Magnetic Alloys and Steels.
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