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Part I Nano-imaging by Transmission Electron Microscopy |
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1 Seeing Nanometer-Sized World |
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3 | (14) |
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1.1 What is the Nanoworld? How Much is Its Size? |
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3 | (3) |
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1.2 Necessity of Study for Nanoscience and Nanoimaging |
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6 | (2) |
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1.3 Basic Modes for Imaging |
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8 | (2) |
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1.4 Why are Electrons Necessary for Nanoimaging? |
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10 | (2) |
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1.5 Three Methods for Seeing Isolated Single Atoms |
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12 | (3) |
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15 | (2) |
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15 | (1) |
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15 | (2) |
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2 Structure and Imaging of a Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) |
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17 | (12) |
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2.1 Structure of a Transmission Electron Microscope |
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17 | (5) |
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2.2 Basic Action of a Magnetic Round Lens |
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22 | (2) |
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2.3 Mathematics for Describing Lens Actions |
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24 | (3) |
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27 | (2) |
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27 | (1) |
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28 | (1) |
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3 Basic Theories of TEM Imaging |
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29 | (14) |
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3.1 How to Describe a Wave in Three-Dimensional Space? |
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29 | (4) |
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3.2 Why Does an Electron Microscope Visualize an Objects in Analogy with a Light Microscope? |
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33 | (2) |
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3.3 Why Can a Single Atom be Observed by an Electron Microscope? |
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35 | (3) |
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3.4 Images and Diffraction Patterns |
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38 | (3) |
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41 | (2) |
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42 | (1) |
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42 | (1) |
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4 Resolution and Image Contrast of a Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) |
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43 | (16) |
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4.1 Simple Estimation of Point-to-Point Resolution of a TEM |
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43 | (5) |
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4.2 Limitation by Chromatic Aberration of an Objective Lens |
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48 | (1) |
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4.3 Effects of Other Aberrations on Image Resolution in TEM |
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49 | (1) |
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4.4 Image Contrast of a Transmission Electron Microscope Image |
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50 | (2) |
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52 | (3) |
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55 | (1) |
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56 | (3) |
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56 | (1) |
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57 | (2) |
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5 What is High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy? |
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59 | (14) |
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5.1 How Can We Observe a Single Atom by TEM? -- Magic of Phase Contrast |
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59 | (5) |
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5.2 A Second-Order Theory for Single-Atom Imaging |
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64 | (2) |
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5.3 Phase Contrast of Atomic Clusters |
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66 | (2) |
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5.4 Imaging of Amorphous Films and Thon's Experiment |
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68 | (1) |
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5.5 Diffraction Contrast of Microcrystallites |
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69 | (1) |
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5.6 Where Does an Objective Lens Focus in Thin Specimens? |
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70 | (1) |
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5.7 Key Concepts of High-Resolution Imaging |
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71 | (1) |
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71 | (2) |
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72 | (1) |
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72 | (1) |
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6 Lattice Images and Structure Images |
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73 | (14) |
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6.1 Interference of Two Waves in Three-Dimension |
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73 | (2) |
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6.2 Lattice Images by Two-Wave Interference from a Crystal |
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75 | (3) |
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6.3 Three-Wave Interference and Fourier Images |
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78 | (1) |
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6.4 MultiWave Lattice Images |
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79 | (3) |
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6.5 What is a Structure Image of Thicker Crystals |
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82 | (2) |
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84 | (1) |
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85 | (2) |
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85 | (1) |
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85 | (2) |
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7 Imaging Theory of High-Resolution TEM and Image Simulation |
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87 | (24) |
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7.1 Linear Imaging Theory of TEM for Single-Crystal Specimens |
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87 | (10) |
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7.1.1 Description of Phase Modulation by a Thin Specimen |
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87 | (2) |
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7.1.2 Exit Wave Field for a Thicker Crystal |
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89 | (1) |
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7.1.3 Lens Transfer Function |
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89 | (1) |
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7.1.4 Phase Contrast Caused by Aberrations of an Objective Lens |
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90 | (1) |
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7.1.5 Contrast Transfer Function Described in Reciprocal Space |
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91 | (2) |
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7.1.6 Effects of a Slight Convergence of Incident Electron Waves and Fluctuation of Accelerating Voltage |
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93 | (1) |
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7.1.7 Imaging Theory of Weak-Amplitude Objects |
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94 | (2) |
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7.1.8 Effects of Inelastic Scattering on HRTEM Images |
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96 | (1) |
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7.2 Image Simulation of High-Resolution TEM Images |
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97 | (5) |
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7.2.1 Necessity of the Simulation |
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97 | (1) |
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7.2.2 Principle and Method of Simulation |
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98 | (2) |
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7.2.3 What is the Supercell Method in Image Simulation |
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100 | (2) |
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7.3 Coherence Problems in TEM Imaging |
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102 | (7) |
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7.3.1 Imaging Theory of TEM and the Related Coherence of Incident Waves |
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102 | (2) |
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7.3.2 Contrast of Interference Fringes and the Definition of Coherence |
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104 | (1) |
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7.3.3 Temporal Coherence and Spatial Coherence of Waves |
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105 | (4) |
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109 | (2) |
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109 | (1) |
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109 | (2) |
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8 Advanced Transmission Electron Microscopy |
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111 | (38) |
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8.1 Energy-Filtered Transmission Electron Microscopy (EFTEM) |
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111 | (7) |
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8.1.1 Basic Theory of Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) |
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111 | (2) |
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8.1.2 EELS in Image and Diffraction Modes |
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113 | (2) |
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8.1.3 Practical Energy-Filtered TEM Instruments |
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115 | (1) |
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8.1.4 What is Elemental Mapping Image? |
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116 | (1) |
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8.1.5 Spatial Resolution of Energy-Filtered TEM Images |
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117 | (1) |
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118 | (8) |
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8.2.1 What is Holography? |
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118 | (2) |
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8.2.2 Instruments for Electron Holography |
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120 | (2) |
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8.2.3 What Can We Do Using Electron Holography? |
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122 | (4) |
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8.3 Electron Tomography -- 3D Visualization of Nanoworld |
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126 | (6) |
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8.3.1 Principle of 3D Tomography |
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126 | (3) |
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8.3.2 Application of the Principle to TEM |
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129 | (1) |
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8.3.3 Actual Instruments for Electron Tomography |
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130 | (1) |
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8.3.4 Present Issues in Electron Tomography |
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130 | (2) |
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8.4 Aberration-Corrected Transmission Electron Microscopy |
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132 | (12) |
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8.4.1 Overview of Spherical Aberration Correction in TEM |
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132 | (2) |
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8.4.2 Aberrations of Magnetic Round Lens |
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134 | (1) |
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8.4.3 Basic Principle of Spherical Aberration Correction |
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134 | (4) |
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8.4.4 Actual Aberration Corrector for TEM |
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138 | (2) |
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8.4.5 Benefits of Aberration-Corrected TEM |
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140 | (3) |
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8.4.6 Correction of Chromatic Aberration in TEM |
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143 | (1) |
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144 | (5) |
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144 | (1) |
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144 | (5) |
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Part II Nano-imaging by Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy |
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9 What is Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM)? |
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149 | (12) |
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9.1 Characteristics of STEM |
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149 | (3) |
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9.1.1 Comparison between TEM, SEM, and STEM |
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149 | (3) |
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9.1.2 Application Possibilities of STEM |
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152 | (1) |
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9.2 Basics for nm-Sized Electron Probe (Geometrical Optical Approach) |
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152 | (3) |
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9.3 Principle of Image Formation in STEM |
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155 | (2) |
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9.4 Actual Instrument of STEM |
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157 | (1) |
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158 | (3) |
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158 | (1) |
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158 | (3) |
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10 Imaging of Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM) |
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161 | (6) |
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10.1 Reciprocal Theorem between STEM and TEM |
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161 | (2) |
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10.2 Imaging Modes in STEM |
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163 | (2) |
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165 | (2) |
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166 | (1) |
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166 | (1) |
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11 Image Contrast and Its Formation Mechanism in STEM |
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167 | (24) |
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11.1 Bright-Field Image Contrast and Lattice Images with Phase Contrast |
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168 | (1) |
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11.2 Crewe's Z-Contrast of a Single Atom |
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169 | (2) |
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11.3 Pennycook's Z2-x-Contrast in Annular Dark-Field (ADF) STEM |
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171 | (4) |
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11.4 Depth-Sectioning for ADF-STEM Images |
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175 | (2) |
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11.5 Annular Bright-Field (ABF) STEM -- Revival of Bright-Field Imaging in STEM -- |
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177 | (1) |
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11.6 Elemental Mapping Imaging by EELS and EDX in STEM |
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178 | (4) |
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11.7 Secondary Electron Imaging in STEM |
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182 | (1) |
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11.8 Scanning Confocal Electron Microscopy (SCEM) |
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182 | (1) |
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183 | (1) |
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11.10 Electron Tomography by STEM |
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184 | (3) |
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11.10.1 Image Contrast of Amorphous Specimens |
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185 | (1) |
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11.10.2 STEM Tomography of Crystalline Specimens |
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186 | (1) |
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11.10.3 3D Images Using EELS Signals and EDX Ones |
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186 | (1) |
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11.10.4 Topography Versus Tomography for 3D Representation |
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187 | (1) |
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11.11 Nanodiffraction in STEM |
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187 | (2) |
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189 | (2) |
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189 | (1) |
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189 | (2) |
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12 Imaging Theory for STEM |
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191 | (12) |
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12.1 Basic Concept of Imaging Theory for STEM |
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191 | (1) |
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12.2 Cowley--Moodie's Multislice Method |
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192 | (7) |
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12.3 Bethe's Bloch Wave Method |
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199 | (2) |
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201 | (2) |
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202 | (1) |
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202 | (1) |
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13 Future Prospects and Possibility of TEM and STEM |
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203 | (10) |
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203 | (1) |
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13.2 Effects of Chromatic Aberration |
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204 | (1) |
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13.3 Development of Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) |
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205 | (1) |
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13.4 Simulation for Quantitative Estimation for TEM and STEM Images |
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205 | (1) |
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13.5 Development of Elemental Analysis Using EDX |
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205 | (1) |
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13.6 Other Signal Detection for STEM Imaging |
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206 | (1) |
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13.7 Electron Tomography in TEM and STEM |
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206 | (2) |
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13.7.1 Ordinary Electron Tomography |
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206 | (1) |
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13.7.2 HRTEM Method for the Extraction of 3D Information of Small Particles |
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207 | (1) |
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13.7.3 Depth-Sectioning Method in ADF-STEM |
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207 | (1) |
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13.7.4 Confocal Imaging Mode in STEM |
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208 | (1) |
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13.8 Toward Lower Voltage TEM and STEM |
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208 | (1) |
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13.9 In Situ Observation and High-Resolution Observation in Gas and Liquid Atmospheres |
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209 | (1) |
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13.10 Pulsed Electron Beam for Time-Resolved Observation and Its New Possibility |
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209 | (1) |
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13.11 Use of Spin-Polarized Electron Beams and Vortex Electron Beams |
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210 | (3) |
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211 | (2) |
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213 | (6) |
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215 | (4) |
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Part III Appendix: Basics for Understanding TEM and STEM Imaging |
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15 Introduction to Fourier Transforms for TEM and STEM |
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219 | (8) |
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219 | (1) |
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15.2 Fourier Integral (Fourier Transform) |
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220 | (1) |
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15.3 Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional Fourier Transforms |
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221 | (1) |
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15.4 Properties of Fourier Transforms |
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221 | (1) |
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15.5 Fourier Transform of a Product of Two Functions |
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222 | (1) |
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223 | (1) |
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15.7 Relationship between Various Fourier Transforms and Phenomena in Optics and Diffraction |
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224 | (2) |
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15.8 Sign Convention for Fourier Transforms |
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226 | (1) |
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226 | (1) |
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16 Imaging by Using a Convex Lens as a Phase Shifter |
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227 | (8) |
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16.1 Propagation of Electron Waves |
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227 | (3) |
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16.2 Action of a Convex Lens |
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230 | (5) |
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233 | (2) |
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17 Contrast Transfer Function of a Transmission Electron Microscope |
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235 | (8) |
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242 | (1) |
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18 Complex-Valued Expression of Aberrations of a Round Lens |
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243 | (4) |
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245 | (2) |
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19 Cowley's Theory for TEM and STEM Imaging |
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247 | (6) |
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19.1 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) Images |
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247 | (2) |
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19.2 Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM) Images |
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249 | (4) |
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251 | (2) |
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20 Introduction to the Imaging Theory for TEM Including Nonlinear Terms |
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253 | (8) |
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20.1 What is Mutual Intensity? |
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253 | (3) |
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20.2 Interaction with Specimens and Image Intensity |
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256 | (2) |
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20.3 Nonlinear Imaging Theory for High-Resolution TEM |
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258 | (3) |
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259 | (2) |
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21 What are Image Processing Methods? |
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261 | (4) |
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263 | (2) |
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22 Elemental Analysis by Electron Microscopes |
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265 | (2) |
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266 | (1) |
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23 Electron Beam Damage to Specimens |
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267 | (6) |
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23.1 Damage to Non-Biological Specimens |
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267 | (1) |
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23.2 Damage to Organic and Biological Specimens |
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268 | (3) |
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271 | (2) |
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271 | (2) |
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24 Scattering of Electrons by an Atom |
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273 | (6) |
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278 | (1) |
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25 Electron Diffraction and Convergent Beam Electron Diffraction (CBED) |
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279 | (8) |
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286 | (1) |
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26 Bethe's Method for Dynamical Electron Diffraction |
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287 | (6) |
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291 | (2) |
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27 Column Approximation and Howie-Whelan's Method for Dynamical Electron Diffraction |
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293 | (4) |
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27.1 Column Approximation |
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293 | (2) |
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27.2 Dynamical Diffraction Theory Developed by Howie and Whelan |
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295 | (2) |
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296 | (1) |
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28 Van Dyck's Method for Dynamical Electron Diffraction and Imaging |
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297 | (4) |
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300 | (1) |
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29 Eikonal Theory for Scattering of Electrons by a Potential |
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301 | (4) |
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303 | (2) |
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30 Debye-Waller Factor and Thermal Diffuse Scattering (TDS) |
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305 | (4) |
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307 | (2) |
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31 Relativistic Effects to Diffraction and Imaging by a Transmission Electron Microscope |
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309 | (4) |
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312 | (1) |
Author Index |
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313 | (4) |
Subject Index |
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317 | |