Preface |
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xix | |
Contributors |
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xxi | |
Acknowledgments |
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xxiii | |
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1 | (22) |
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1.1 What Is Gas Flooding? |
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1 | (1) |
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2 | (1) |
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1.3 Technical and Economic Screening Process |
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3 | (2) |
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1.4 Gas Injection Design and WAG |
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5 | (4) |
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9 | (3) |
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1.5.1 Standard (or Basic) PVT Data |
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9 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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11 | (1) |
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1.5.5 Fluid Characterization Using an Equation-of-State |
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12 | (1) |
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1.6 MMP and Displacement Mechanisms |
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12 | (4) |
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1.6.1 Simplified Ternary Representation of Displacement Mechanisms |
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13 | (2) |
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1.6.2 Displacement Mechanisms for Field Gas Floods |
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15 | (1) |
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1.6.3 Determination of MMP |
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15 | (1) |
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16 | (5) |
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1.7.1 Slaughter Estate Unit GO2 Flood |
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16 | (1) |
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1.7.2 Immiscible Weeks Island Gravity Stable CO2 Flood |
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17 | (2) |
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1.7.3 Jay Little Escambia Creek Nitrogen Flood |
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19 | (1) |
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1.7.4 Overview of Field Experience |
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20 | (1) |
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21 | (2) |
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21 | (1) |
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22 | (1) |
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2 Enhanced Oil Recovery by Using CO2 Foams: Fundamentals and Field Applications |
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23 | (40) |
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23 | (11) |
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2.1.1 Why CO2 Is so Popular in Recent Years? |
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23 | (1) |
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2.1.2 Why CO2 Is of Interest Compared to Other Gases? |
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24 | (1) |
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2.1.3 Why CO2 Is Injected as Foams? |
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24 | (1) |
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2.1.4 Foam in Porous Media: Creation and Coalescence Mechanisms |
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25 | (1) |
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2.1.5 Foam in Porous Media: Three Foam States and Foam Generation |
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25 | (2) |
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2.1.6 Foam in Porous Media: Two Strong-Foam Regimes-High-Quality and Low-Quality Regimes |
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27 | (1) |
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2.1.7 Modeling Foams in Porous Media |
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28 | (2) |
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2.1.8 Foam Injection Methods and Gravity Segregation |
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30 | (1) |
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2.1.9 CO2-Foam Coreflood Experiments |
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31 | (1) |
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2.1.10 Effect of Subsurface Heterogeneity-Limiting Capillary Pressure and Limiting Water Saturation |
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32 | (2) |
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2.1.11 Foam-Oil Interactions |
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34 | (1) |
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2.2 Foam Field Applications |
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34 | (11) |
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2.2.1 The First Foam Field Applications, Siggins Field, Illinois |
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34 | (1) |
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2.2.2 Steam Foam EOR, Midway Sunset Field, California |
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35 | (2) |
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2.2.3 CO2/N2 Foam Injection in Wilmington, California (1984) |
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37 | (1) |
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2.2.4 CO2-Foam Injection in Rock Creek, Virginia (1984-1985) |
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38 | (1) |
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2.2.5 CO2-Foam Injection in Rangely Weber Sand Unit, Colorado (1988-1990) |
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39 | (1) |
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2.2.6 CO2-Foam Injection in North Ward-Estes, Texas (1990-1991) |
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40 | (2) |
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2.2.7 CO2-Foam Injection in the East Vacuum Grayburg/San Andres Unit, New Mexico (1991-1993) |
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42 | (1) |
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2.2.8 CO2-Foam Injection in East Mallet Unit, Texas, and McElmo Creek Unit, Utah (1991-1994) |
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43 | (2) |
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2.3 Typical Field Responses During CO2-Foam Applications |
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45 | (7) |
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2.3.1 Diversion from High- to Low-Permeability Layers |
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45 | (1) |
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2.3.2 Typical Responses from Successful SAG Processes |
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46 | (5) |
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2.3.3 Typical Responses from Successful Surfactant-Gas Coinjection Processes |
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51 | (1) |
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52 | (11) |
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53 | (1) |
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Appendix-Expression of Gas-Mobility Reduction in the Presence of Foams |
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53 | (6) |
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59 | (4) |
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3 Polymer Flooding-Fundamentals and Field Cases |
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63 | (20) |
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3.1 Polymers Classification |
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63 | (1) |
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3.2 Polymer Solution Viscosity |
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64 | (1) |
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3.2.1 Salinity and Concentration Effects |
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64 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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3.3 Polymer Flow Behavior in Porous Media |
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65 | (5) |
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3.3.1 Polymer Viscosity in Porous Media |
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65 | (2) |
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67 | (1) |
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3.3.3 Inaccessible Pore Volume |
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68 | (1) |
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3.3.4 Permeability Reduction |
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69 | (1) |
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3.3.5 Relative Permeabilities in Polymer Flooding |
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70 | (1) |
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3.4 Mechanisms of Polymer Flooding |
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70 | (2) |
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72 | (1) |
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72 | (1) |
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3.7 Field Performance and Field Cases 73 |
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3.7.1 Overall Field Performance |
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73 | (1) |
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3.7.2 Polymer Flooding in a Very Heterogeneous Reservoir |
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74 | (1) |
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3.7.3 Polymer Flooding Using High MW and High Concentration Polymer |
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75 | (1) |
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3.7.4 Polymer Flooding in Heavy Oil, Reservoirs |
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76 | (1) |
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3.7.5 Polymer Flooding in the Marmul Field, Omap |
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77 | (1) |
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3.7.6 Polymer Flooding in a Carbonate Reservoir-Vacuum Field, New Mexico |
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78 | (1) |
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3.8 Post-Polymer Conformance Control Using Movable Gel |
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78 | (5) |
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80 | (3) |
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4 Polymer Flooding Practice in Daqing |
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83 | (34) |
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83 | (4) |
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83 | (1) |
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4.1.2 Profile Modification |
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84 | (2) |
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4.1.3 Microscopic Mechanism |
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86 | (1) |
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87 | (4) |
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87 | (1) |
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4.2.2 Reservoir Temperature |
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88 | (1) |
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4.2.3 Reservoir Permeability |
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88 | (1) |
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4.2.4 Reservoir Heterogeneity |
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89 | (1) |
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90 | (1) |
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4.2.6 Formation Water Salinity |
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90 | (1) |
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4.3 Key Points of Polymer Flood Design |
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91 | (11) |
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4.3.1 Well Pattern Design and Combination of Oil Strata |
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92 | (2) |
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4.3.2 Injection Sequence Options |
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94 | (1) |
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4.3.3 Injection Formulation |
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95 | (6) |
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4.3.4 Individual Production and Injection Rate Allocation |
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101 | (1) |
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4.4 Polymer Flooding Dynamic Performance |
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102 | (2) |
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4.4.1 Stages and Dynamic Behavior of Polymer Flooding Process |
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102 | (2) |
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4.4.2 Problems and Treatments During Different Phases |
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104 | (1) |
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104 | (3) |
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4.5.1 Mixing and Injection |
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105 | (1) |
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4.5.2 Produced Water Treatment |
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106 | (1) |
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107 | (4) |
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4.6.1 Well Pattern and Oil Strata Combination |
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107 | (1) |
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4.6.2 Polymer Injection Case Design |
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108 | (1) |
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4.6.3 Polymer Performance Prediction |
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109 | (2) |
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4.6.4 Polymer Performance Evaluation |
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111 | (1) |
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111 | (6) |
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112 | (2) |
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114 | (3) |
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5 Surfactant-Polymer Flooding |
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117 | (26) |
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117 | (1) |
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117 | (2) |
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5.2.1 Parameters to Characterize Surfactants |
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118 | (1) |
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5.3 Types of Microemulsions |
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119 | (1) |
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120 | (1) |
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121 | (1) |
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5.6 Viscosity of Microemulsion |
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122 | (1) |
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122 | (1) |
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5.8 Capillary Desaturation Curve |
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123 | (1) |
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5.9 Relative Permeability |
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123 | (1) |
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5.10 Surfactant Retention |
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124 | (1) |
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125 | (1) |
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5.12 Displacement Mechanisms |
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126 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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5.14 Field Performance Data |
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126 | (1) |
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127 | (16) |
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5.15.1 Loma Novia Field Low-Tension Waterflooding |
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127 | (1) |
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5.15.2 Wichita County Regular Field Low-Tension Waterflooding |
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128 | (2) |
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5.15.3 El Dorado M/P Pilot |
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130 | (2) |
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132 | (2) |
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5.15.5 Torchlight M/P Pilot |
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134 | (2) |
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5.15.6 Delaware-Childers M/P Project |
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136 | (1) |
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5.15.7 Minas SP Project Preparation |
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136 | (3) |
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5.15.8 SP Flooding in the Gudong Field, China |
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139 | (2) |
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141 | (2) |
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143 | (26) |
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143 | (1) |
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6.2 Comparison of Alkalis Used in Alkaline Flooding |
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143 | (1) |
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144 | (2) |
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6.3.1 Alkaline Reaction with Crude Oil |
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144 | (1) |
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6.3.2 Alkaline Interaction with Rock |
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145 | (1) |
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6.3.3 Alkaline-Reactions with water |
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146 | (1) |
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146 | (1) |
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147 | (2) |
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6.6 Application Conditions of Alkaline Flooding |
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149 | (2) |
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151 | (14) |
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6.7.1 Russian Tpexozephoe Field (Abbreviated as Field T) |
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151 | (3) |
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6.7.2 Russian Field (Abbreviated as Field W) |
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154 | (1) |
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155 | (1) |
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6.7.4 North Gujarat Oil Field, India |
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156 | (1) |
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6.7.5 Whittier Field in California |
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157 | (1) |
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6.7.6 Torrance Field in California |
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158 | (1) |
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6.7.7 Wilmington Field in California |
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159 | (5) |
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6.7.8 Court Bakken Heavy Oil Reservoir in Saskatchewan, Canada |
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164 | (1) |
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165 | (4) |
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165 | (4) |
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7 Alkaline-Polymer Flooding |
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169 | (10) |
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169 | (1) |
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7.2 Interactions Between Alkali and Polymer |
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169 | (1) |
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7.3 Synergy Between Alkali and Polymer |
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169 | (2) |
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7.4 Field AP Applications |
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171 | (7) |
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7.4.1 Almy Sands (Isenhour Unit) in Wyoming, USA |
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171 | (1) |
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7.4.2 Moorcroft West in Wyoming, USA |
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172 | (2) |
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7.4.3 Thompson Creek Field in Wyoming, USA |
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174 | (1) |
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7.4.4 David Lloydminster "A" Pool in Canada |
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174 | (2) |
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7.4.5 Etzikom Field in Alberta, Canada |
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176 | (1) |
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7.4.6 Xing-28 Block, Liaohe Field, China |
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176 | (1) |
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177 | (1) |
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178 | (1) |
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178 | (1) |
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8 Alkaline-Surfactant Flooding |
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179 | (10) |
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179 | (1) |
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8.2 Interactions and Synergies Between Alkali and Surfactant |
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179 | (5) |
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8.2.1 Alkaline Salt Effect |
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179 | (1) |
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8.2.2 Effect on Optimum Salinity and Solubilization Ratio |
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179 | (1) |
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8.2.3 Synergy Between Soap and Surfactant to Improve Phase Behavior |
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180 | (3) |
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183 | (1) |
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8.2.5 Effect on Surfactant Adsorption |
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183 | (1) |
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8.3 Simulated Results of an Alkaline-Surfactant System |
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184 | (1) |
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185 | (4) |
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8.4.1 Big Sinking Field in East Kentucky |
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186 | (1) |
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8.4.2 White Castle Field in Louisiana |
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186 | (2) |
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188 | (1) |
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9 ASP Fundamentals and Field Cases Outside China |
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189 | (14) |
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189 | (1) |
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9.2 Synergies and Interactions of ASP |
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189 | (1) |
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9.3 Practical Issues of ASP Flooding |
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190 | (2) |
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190 | (1) |
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9.3.2 Chromatographic Separation of Alkali, Surfactant, and Polymer |
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191 | (1) |
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9.3.3 Precipitation and Scale Problems |
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192 | (1) |
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9.4 Amounts of Chemicals Injected in Chinese Field ASP Projects |
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192 | (2) |
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9.5 Overall ASP Field Performance |
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194 | (1) |
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9.6 ASP Examples of Field Pilots and Applications |
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194 | (9) |
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9.6.1 Lawrence Field in Illinois |
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194 | (2) |
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9.6.2 Cambridge Minnelusa Field in Wyoming |
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196 | (2) |
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9.6.3 West Kiehl Field in Wyoming |
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198 | (1) |
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9.6.4 Tanner Field in Wyoming |
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199 | (1) |
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9.6.5 Lagomar LVA-6/9/21 Area in Venezuela |
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199 | (1) |
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200 | (3) |
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10 ASP Process and Field Results |
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203 | (48) |
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203 | (1) |
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204 | (3) |
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10.3 Laboratory Studies and Mechanistic Modeling |
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207 | (9) |
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10.3.1 Laboratory Studies |
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207 | (5) |
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10.3.2 Mechanistic Modeling |
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212 | (3) |
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10.3.3 Other Laboratory Studies and Field Experiments |
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215 | (1) |
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10.4 The Screening Process |
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216 | (2) |
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10.5 Field Applications and Results |
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218 | (9) |
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10.5.1 ASP Flooding in the Daqing Oil Field |
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221 | (4) |
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10.5.2 ASP Flooding in the Shengli Oil Field |
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225 | (1) |
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10.5.3 ASP Flooding in the Karamay Oil Field |
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225 | (1) |
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10.5.4 Other Field Test Results |
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226 | (1) |
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10.6 Interpretation of Field Test Results |
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227 | (3) |
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10.6.1 Assessment of Oil Recovery Efficiency |
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227 | (2) |
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10.6.2 Interpretation of Recovery Mechanisms |
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229 | (1) |
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10.6.3 Process Application |
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229 | (1) |
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230 | (2) |
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10.8 Future Outlook and Focus |
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232 | (3) |
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235 | (1) |
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10.10 Recommendation on Field Project Designs |
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235 | (16) |
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Nomenclature and Abbreviations |
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239 | (1) |
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240 | (11) |
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11 Foams and Their Applications in Enhancing Oil Recovery |
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251 | (30) |
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251 | (1) |
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11.2 Characteristics of Foam |
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251 | (1) |
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252 | (5) |
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11.4 Mechanisms of Foam Flooding to Enhance Oil Recovery |
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257 | (3) |
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11.4.1 Foam Formation and Decay |
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258 | (2) |
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11.4.2 Foam Flooding Mechanisms |
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260 | (1) |
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260 | (2) |
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260 | (1) |
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11.5.2 Relative Permeabilities |
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261 | (1) |
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11.5.3 Mobility Reduction |
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261 | (1) |
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11.5.4 Flow Resistance Factor |
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262 | (1) |
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11.6 Foam Application Modes |
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262 | (3) |
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262 | (1) |
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263 | (1) |
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11.6.3 Foam Injection in Gas Miscible Flooding |
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264 | (1) |
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11.6.4 Gas Coning Blocking Foam |
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264 | (1) |
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11.6.5 Enhanced Foam Flooding |
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264 | (1) |
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11.6.6 Foams for Well Stimulation |
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264 | (1) |
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11.7 Factors That Need to Be Considered in Designing Foam Flooding Applications |
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265 | (2) |
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11.7.1 Screening Criteria |
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265 | (1) |
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265 | (1) |
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266 | (1) |
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11.8 Results of Field Application Survey |
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267 | (1) |
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11.8.1 Locations of Conducted Foam Projects |
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267 | (1) |
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11.8.2 Applicable Reservoir and Process Parameters |
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267 | (1) |
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268 | (1) |
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268 | (1) |
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11.9 Individual Field Applications |
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268 | (13) |
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11.9.1 Single Well Polymer-Enhanced Foam Flooding Test |
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268 | (3) |
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11.9.2 Nitrogen Foam Flooding in a Heavy Oil Reservoir After Steam and Waterflooding |
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271 | (2) |
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11.9.3 Snorre Foam-Assisted-Water-Alternating-Gas Project |
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273 | (3) |
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276 | (5) |
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12 Surfactant Enhanced Oil Recovery in Carbonate Reservoirs |
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281 | (20) |
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281 | (1) |
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12.2 Problems in Carbonate Reservoirs |
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282 | (1) |
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12.3 Models of Wettability Alteration Using Surfactants |
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283 | (3) |
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286 | (3) |
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12.5 Oil Recovery Mechanisms in Carbonates Using Chemicals |
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289 | (2) |
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12.6 Chemicals Used in Carbonate EOR |
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291 | (1) |
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12.7 Chemical EOR Projects in Carbonate Reservoirs |
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292 | (4) |
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12.7.1 The Mauddud Carbonate in Bahrain |
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292 | (1) |
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12.7.2 The Yates Field in Texas |
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293 | (1) |
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12.7.3 The Cottonwood Creek Field in Wyoming |
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294 | (1) |
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12.7.4 The Baturaja Formation in the Semoga Field in Indonesia |
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294 | (1) |
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12.7.5 Cretaceous Upper Edwards Reservoir (Central Texas) |
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295 | (1) |
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296 | (5) |
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296 | (1) |
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297 | (4) |
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13 Water-Based EOR in Carbonates and Sandstones: New Chemical Understanding of the EOR Potential Using "Smart Water" |
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301 | (36) |
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301 | (5) |
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13.1.1 Wetting in Carbonates |
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302 | (2) |
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13.1.2 Wetting in Sandstones |
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304 | (1) |
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13.1.3 Smart Water Flooding |
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304 | (2) |
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13.2 "Smart Water" in Carbonates |
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306 | (14) |
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306 | (1) |
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13.2.2 Reactive Potential Determining Ions |
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307 | (5) |
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13.2.3 Suggested Mechanism for Wettability Modification |
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312 | (1) |
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13.2.4 Optimization of Injected Water |
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312 | (3) |
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13.2.5 Viscous Flood Versus Spontaneous Imbibitions |
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315 | (1) |
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13.2.6 Environmental Effects |
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315 | (1) |
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13.2.7 Smart Water in Limestone |
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316 | (1) |
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13.2.8 Condition for Low Salinity EOR Effects in Limestone |
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317 | (3) |
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13.3 "Smart Water" in Sandstones |
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320 | (6) |
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320 | (1) |
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13.3.2 Conditions for Low Salinity Effects |
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320 | (1) |
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13.3.3 Suggested Low Salinity Mechanisms |
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320 | (1) |
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13.3.4 Improved Chemical Understanding of the Mechanism |
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321 | (1) |
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13.3.5 Chemical Verification of the Low Salinity Mechanism |
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321 | (5) |
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13.4 Field Examples and EOR Possibilities |
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326 | (6) |
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326 | (2) |
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328 | (2) |
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13.4.3 Statoil Snorre Pilot |
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330 | (2) |
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332 | (5) |
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332 | (1) |
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332 | (5) |
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14 Facility Requirements for Implementing a Chemical EOR Project |
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337 | (24) |
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337 | (2) |
|
14.2 Overall Project Requirements |
|
|
339 | (4) |
|
14.3 Modes of Chemical EOR Injection |
|
|
343 | (4) |
|
|
344 | (1) |
|
14.3.2 Surfactant-Polymer Flooding |
|
|
345 | (1) |
|
14.3.3 Alkaline-Polymer Flooding |
|
|
345 | (2) |
|
14.3.4 Alkaline-Surfactant-Polymer |
|
|
347 | (1) |
|
14.4 Water Treatment and Conditioning |
|
|
347 | (3) |
|
14.5 Handling and Processing EOR Chemicals On-site |
|
|
350 | (8) |
|
14.5.1 Polymer Handling, Processing, and Metering |
|
|
350 | (4) |
|
14.5.2 Surfactant Handling and Metering |
|
|
354 | (1) |
|
14.5.3 Alkaline Agent Handling, Processing and Metering |
|
|
355 | (3) |
|
14.6 Injection Schemes and Strategies |
|
|
358 | (1) |
|
14.7 Materials of Construction |
|
|
359 | (1) |
|
|
360 | (1) |
|
|
360 | (1) |
|
|
361 | (28) |
|
|
15.1 Thermal Properties and Energy Concepts |
|
|
361 | (3) |
|
|
361 | (1) |
|
|
361 | (1) |
|
|
362 | (1) |
|
15.1.4 Total Volumetric Heat Capacity |
|
|
362 | (1) |
|
15.1.5 Thermal Diffusivity (α) |
|
|
363 | (1) |
|
|
363 | (1) |
|
15.1.7 Vapor Pressure, Saturation Pressure, and Saturation Temperature |
|
|
363 | (1) |
|
|
363 | (1) |
|
15.1.9 Temperature-Dependent Oil Viscosity |
|
|
363 | (1) |
|
15.1.10 Gravitational Potential Energy |
|
|
364 | (1) |
|
|
364 | (1) |
|
|
364 | (1) |
|
15.2 Modes of Heat Transfer |
|
|
364 | (2) |
|
|
365 | (1) |
|
|
365 | (1) |
|
|
365 | (1) |
|
|
366 | (1) |
|
15.3.1 Heat Loss from Surface Pipes |
|
|
366 | (1) |
|
15.3.2 Heat Loss from a Wellbore |
|
|
366 | (1) |
|
15.3.3 Heat Loss to Over- and Underburden Rocks |
|
|
366 | (1) |
|
15.3.4 Heat Loss from Produced Fluids |
|
|
367 | (1) |
|
15.4 Estimation of the Heated Area |
|
|
367 | (3) |
|
15.5 Estimation of Oil Recovery Performance |
|
|
370 | (1) |
|
|
371 | (1) |
|
|
371 | (2) |
|
15.8 Practice in Steam Flooding Projects |
|
|
373 | (6) |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
15.8.2 Injection Pattern and Well Spacing |
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
15.8.3 Injection and Production Rates |
|
|
375 | (1) |
|
|
376 | (1) |
|
15.8.5 Time to Convert Steam Soak to Steam Flood |
|
|
376 | (1) |
|
15.8.6 Oil Recovery and OSR |
|
|
377 | (1) |
|
15.8.7 Completion Interval |
|
|
377 | (1) |
|
15.8.8 Production Facilities |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
15.8.10 Monitoring and Surveillance |
|
|
379 | (1) |
|
|
379 | (10) |
|
15.9.1 Kern River in California |
|
|
379 | (2) |
|
15.9.2 Duri Steam Flood (DSF) Project in Indonesia |
|
|
381 | (1) |
|
15.9.3 WASP in West Coalinga Field, CA |
|
|
382 | (1) |
|
15.9.4 Karamay Field, China |
|
|
382 | (1) |
|
15.9.5 Qi-40 Block in Laohe, China |
|
|
383 | (3) |
|
|
386 | (3) |
|
16 Cyclic Steam Stimulation |
|
|
389 | (24) |
|
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
|
389 | (2) |
|
16.3 Estimating Production Response from CSS-Boberg and Lantz Model |
|
|
391 | (4) |
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
16.5 Practice in CSS Projects |
|
|
396 | (5) |
|
16.5.1 General Producing Methods |
|
|
396 | (1) |
|
16.5.2 Injection and Production Parameters |
|
|
397 | (3) |
|
16.5.3 Completion Interval |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
16.5.4 Wellbore Heat Insulation |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
16.5.5 Incremental Oil Recovery and OSR |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
16.5.6 Monitoring and Surveillance |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
|
401 | (12) |
|
16.6.1 Cold Lake in Alberta, Canada |
|
|
401 | (1) |
|
16.6.2 Midway Sunset in California |
|
|
402 | (2) |
|
16.6.3 Du 66 Block in the Liao Shuguang Field, China |
|
|
404 | (2) |
|
16.6.4 Jin 45 Block in Liaohe Huanxiling Field, China |
|
|
406 | (1) |
|
16.6.5 Gudao Field, China |
|
|
407 | (1) |
|
16.6.6 Blocks 97 and 98 in Karamay Field, China |
|
|
408 | (3) |
|
16.6.7 Gaosheng Field, China |
|
|
411 | (1) |
|
|
412 | (1) |
|
17 SAGD for Heavy Oil Recovery |
|
|
413 | (34) |
|
|
|
413 | (3) |
|
17.2 Evaluation of SAGD Resource |
|
|
416 | (4) |
|
17.2.1 Importance of Resource Quality |
|
|
416 | (3) |
|
17.2.2 Focus of Delineation |
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
|
420 | (4) |
|
17.3.1 Circulation Heating and Inter-Well Communication Initialization |
|
|
420 | (3) |
|
17.3.2 Well Separation and Start-Up Period |
|
|
423 | (1) |
|
|
423 | (1) |
|
17.4 Well Completion and Work-Over |
|
|
424 | (7) |
|
17.4.1 Steam Circulation for Start-Up |
|
|
424 | (1) |
|
17.4.2 Thermal Wellbore Insulation |
|
|
424 | (1) |
|
17.4.3 Sand Control Liner |
|
|
425 | (1) |
|
17.4.4 Liner Plugging Issue and Treatment |
|
|
426 | (2) |
|
17.4.5 Recompletion to Fix Local Steam Breakthrough |
|
|
428 | (1) |
|
17.4.6 Intelligent Well Completion |
|
|
429 | (2) |
|
|
431 | (3) |
|
|
431 | (1) |
|
|
432 | (1) |
|
17.5.3 Geysering Phenomenon Under Natural Lift |
|
|
433 | (1) |
|
17.6 Well, Reservoir, and Facility Management |
|
|
434 | (4) |
|
17.6.1 Wellbore Pressure and Temperature |
|
|
435 | (1) |
|
17.6.2 Reservoir Monitoring |
|
|
435 | (1) |
|
17.6.3 Rock Deformation Evaluation and Surface Monitoring |
|
|
436 | (2) |
|
|
438 | (2) |
|
17.8 Integration of Subsurface and Surface |
|
|
440 | (1) |
|
17.9 Solvent-Enhanced SAGD |
|
|
440 | (7) |
|
|
442 | (5) |
|
|
447 | (96) |
|
|
|
447 | (20) |
|
18.1.1 Introduction and Qualitative Description of In Situ Combustion Techniques |
|
|
447 | (7) |
|
18.1.2 Design, Operation, and Evaluation of an ISC Field Project |
|
|
454 | (13) |
|
|
467 | (45) |
|
|
467 | (2) |
|
18.2.2 Monitoring and Evaluation of an ISC Pilot/Project |
|
|
469 | (4) |
|
|
473 | (20) |
|
18.2.4 Commercial ISC Projects in Heavy Oil Reservoirs |
|
|
493 | (4) |
|
|
497 | (15) |
|
18.3 ISC Projects in Light Oil Reservoirs |
|
|
512 | (8) |
|
18.3.1 Commercial HPAI Projects in Very Light, Deep, Williston Basin Oil Reservoirs |
|
|
512 | (4) |
|
18.3.2 ISC Projects in Waterflooded Reservoirs Containing Very Light Oil |
|
|
516 | (3) |
|
18.3.3 ISC Failures in Reservoirs with Light-Medium Oils |
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
|
520 | (5) |
|
18.4.1 CISC Application for Heavy Oil Production Stimulation |
|
|
521 | (3) |
|
18.4.2 Increase of Injectivity for Water Injection Wells |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
18.4.3 Sand Consolidation by Hot Air Injection ("Controlled Coking") |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
18.5 New Approaches to Apply ISC in Combination with Horizontal Wells |
|
|
525 | (7) |
|
18.5.1 Horizontal Wells Drilled in Old Cohventional ISC Projects |
|
|
525 | (1) |
|
18.5.2 Long-Distance Versus Short-Distance Displacement |
|
|
526 | (2) |
|
|
528 | (3) |
|
18.5.4 Other ISC Approaches (COSH and Top-Down ISC) |
|
|
531 | (1) |
|
18.6 Operation Problems and Their Remedies |
|
|
532 | (2) |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
18.7 Noncritical Problems |
|
|
534 | (9) |
|
|
536 | (7) |
|
19 Introduction to MEOR and Its Field Applications in China |
|
|
543 | (18) |
|
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
|
544 | (4) |
|
19.3 Microbes and Nutrients Used in MEOR |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
|
549 | (1) |
|
|
550 | (11) |
|
19.5.1 Single-Well Microbial Huff-and-Puff |
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
19.5.2 Microbial Waterflooding |
|
|
552 | (2) |
|
19.5.3 Well Stimulation to Remove Wellbore or Formation Damage |
|
|
554 | (1) |
|
19.5.4 MEOR Using Indigenous Microbes |
|
|
555 | (3) |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
|
558 | (3) |
|
20 The Use of Microorganisms to Enhance Oil Recovery |
|
|
561 | (20) |
|
|
20.1 Origin of the MEOR Concept |
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
|
563 | (4) |
|
20.4 Our Projects on MEOR |
|
|
567 | (9) |
|
|
576 | (5) |
|
|
577 | (4) |
|
21 Field Applications of Organic Oil Recovery-A New MEOR Method |
|
|
581 | (34) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
581 | (1) |
|
21.2 Oil Release Mechanism |
|
|
582 | (2) |
|
21.3 Discussion of Applications |
|
|
584 | (11) |
|
21.3.1 Screening Reservoirs Is Critical to Success |
|
|
584 | (1) |
|
21.3.2 Organic Oil Recovery Can Be Applied to a Wide Range of Oil Gravities |
|
|
585 | (2) |
|
21.3.3 Reservoir Plugging or Formation Damage Is No Longer a Risk |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
21.3.4 Microbes Reside in Extreme Conditions and Can Be Manipulated to Perform Valuable In Situ "Work" |
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
21.3.5 Organic Oil Recovery Can Be Successfully Applied in Dual-Porosity Reservoirs |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
21.3.6 Applying Organic Oil Recovery Can Reduce Reservoir Souring |
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
21.3.7 Organic Oil Recovery Can Be Used in Tight Reservoirs |
|
|
591 | (1) |
|
21.3.8 An Oil Response Is Not Always Seen When Treating Producing Wells |
|
|
591 | (4) |
|
21.4 Case Study 1-Trial Field, Saskatchewan |
|
|
595 | (9) |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
21.4.2 Reservoir Screening and Laboratory Work |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
21.4.3 Field Application Process |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
21.4.4 Nutrient Test in Producer |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
|
597 | (3) |
|
21.4.6 Additional Producer Applications |
|
|
600 | (1) |
|
21.4.7 Expanding the Pilot |
|
|
601 | (3) |
|
|
604 | (1) |
|
21.5 Case Study 2-Beverly Hills Field, California |
|
|
604 | (9) |
|
|
604 | (1) |
|
21.5.2 Nutrient Test in Producer |
|
|
605 | (1) |
|
21.5.3 Injection Well Treatments |
|
|
606 | (2) |
|
21.5.4 Additional Producer Treatments |
|
|
608 | (1) |
|
|
609 | (1) |
|
|
610 | (2) |
|
21.5.7 Discussion of Results |
|
|
612 | (1) |
|
|
613 | (2) |
|
|
613 | (2) |
|
22 Cold Production of Heavy Oil |
|
|
615 | (47) |
|
|
|
616 | (2) |
|
|
618 | (27) |
|
22.2.1 Solution-Gas Drive |
|
|
618 | (9) |
|
|
627 | (18) |
|
|
645 | (15) |
|
22.3.1 Heterogeneity of Reservoirs |
|
|
645 | (6) |
|
22.3.2 History Matching Cold Production Wells |
|
|
651 | (1) |
|
22.3.3 Predicting CHOPS Production |
|
|
652 | (4) |
|
22.3.4 Predicting Post-CHOPS Production |
|
|
656 | (4) |
|
|
660 | (2) |
Acknowledgments |
|
662 | (1) |
References |
|
662 | (5) |
Index |
|
667 | |