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E-raamat: Fire Safety for Very Tall Buildings: Engineering Guide

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This Guide provides information on special topics that affect the fire safety performance of very tall buildings, their occupants and first responders during a fire.  This Guide addresses these topics as part of the overall building design process using performance-based fire protection engineering concepts as described in the SFPE Engineering Guide to Performance Based Fire Protection. This Guide is not intended to be a recommended practice or a document that is suitable for adoption as a code. The Guide pertains to “super tall,” “very tall” and “tall” buildings. Throughout this Guide, all such buildings are called “very tall buildings.”  These buildings are characterized by heights that impose fire protection challenges; they require special attention beyond the protection features typically provided by traditional fire protection methods. This Guide does not establish a definition of buildings that fall within the scope of this document. 

1 Introduction
1(4)
Scope
1(1)
Purpose
2(1)
Background
2(3)
2 History
5(18)
One New York Plaza, New York, USA -- August 15, 1970
6(6)
MGM Grand Hotel, Las Vegas, USA -- November 21, 1980
12(1)
First Interstate Bank, Los Angeles, USA -- May 4, 1988
13(1)
One Meridian Plaza, Philadelphia, USA -- February 23, 1991
13(1)
World Trade Center Terrorist Attack, New York, USA -- February 26, 1993
14(1)
World Trade Center Buildings 1 and 2 Terrorist Attack, New York, USA -- September 11, 2001
14(1)
World Trade Center Building 7 (WTC 7) Terrorist Attack, New York, USA -- September 11, 2001
15(1)
Cook County Administration Building, Chicago, USA -- October 17, 2003
16(1)
Caracas Tower Fire, Caracas, Venezuela -- October 17, 2004
16(1)
Windsor Tower, Madrid, Spain -- February 12, 2005
17(1)
The Mandarin Oriental Hotel Fire, Beijing, China -- February 9, 2009
17(1)
Shanghai Apartment Tower Fire, Shanghai, China -- November 15, 2010
18(1)
Lacrosse Fire, Melbourne, Australia -- November 25, 2014
19(1)
The Address Downtown Hotel Fire, Dubai, UAE -- December 31, 2015
19(1)
Torch Tower Fire, Dubai, UAE -- February 21, 2015 and August 4, 2017
20(1)
Grenfell Tower Fire, London, England -- June 14, 2017
21(1)
Performance-Based Approach to Building Fire Safety
22(1)
3 Components of Performance-Based Design
23(4)
Peer Review
25(1)
Documentation
25(1)
Qualifications for Engineers
26(1)
4 International Practices
27(8)
Key Considerations in International Design
28(3)
Extreme Events in International Very Tall Building Designs
31(4)
Structural Hardening
32(1)
Robust and Redundant Life Safety Systems
32(1)
Egress
32(1)
Fire Fighter Access
32(1)
Building Materials
33(1)
Extreme Natural Events
33(2)
5 Unique Features of Very Tall Buildings
35(4)
Height Beyond Reach of Fire Department Ladders
35(1)
Extended Evacuation Time
35(1)
Pronounced Stack Effect
36(1)
Water Supply Limitations
36(1)
Greater Challenges of Mixed Occupancies
37(1)
Iconic Nature
37(1)
Communication
37(2)
6 Special Features and Attractions
39(4)
Types of Special Features
39(2)
Observation Decks/Restaurants/Night Clubs/Pool Decks
39(1)
Amusement/Entertainment Thrill Features
40(1)
Fireworks
40(1)
Special Life Safety Considerations
41(2)
Life Safety Systems
41(1)
Fall Hazards
42(1)
First Responders: Rescue and Recovery
42(1)
7 Hazard, Risk, and Decision Analysis in Very Tall Building Design
43(12)
Hazards
44(3)
Fire
44(1)
Technological Events
45(1)
Extreme Natural Events
46(1)
Terrorism
47(1)
Risk Analysis
47(2)
Decision Analysis
49(1)
Uses and Applications of Hazard, Risk, and Decision Analysis for Very Tall Buildings
50(1)
Fire Strategy Development
50(1)
Fire Safety Goals and Objectives
51(1)
Fire and Egress Scenario Development
52(1)
Fire Size and Structural Response
53(1)
Multi-hazard Extreme Event Analysis
53(1)
Evaluation of Possible Mitigation Measures
53(1)
Identification and Selection of Evacuation Strategies
54(1)
Emergency Response
54(1)
8 Integration of Building Design and Systems
55(6)
Interrelationship of Operation of Systems
57(1)
Emergency Response and Control of Systems
57(1)
The Building as a System
58(1)
Fire Safety Goals and Objectives
58(2)
Integrating Evacuation Strategies
60(1)
9 System Reliability
61(2)
10 Situation Awareness
63(6)
Situational Information
64(1)
Information Sources
65(1)
Effective Information Delivery
66(3)
11 Emergency Egress
69(36)
Design Considerations for Very Tall Buildings
70(6)
Fire Safety Goals and Objectives for Egress
70(1)
Evacuation Scenario Identification
71(1)
Human Behavior
72(2)
Occupant Functional Limitations
74(1)
Security and Fire Safety
75(1)
Understanding Evacuation Times
76(7)
Why a Timed Egress Analysis?
76(1)
Egress Plan and Timed Egress Analysis
76(1)
Elevators
77(1)
Timed Egress Analysis Tools
77(1)
Review of Evacuation Model Characteristics
78(5)
Evacuation Strategies
83(5)
Simultaneous Evacuation
84(1)
Phased Evacuation
85(1)
Defend-in-Place
86(1)
Progressive Evacuation
86(1)
Full/Total Building Evacuation
87(1)
Hybrid/Combined Strategies
87(1)
Design Features Affecting Evacuation Times
88(9)
Components of Egress
88(4)
Elevator Evacuation
92(5)
Supplementary Escape Equipment
97(1)
Methods for Protecting Building Occupants in Place
97(3)
Evacuation of the Mobility Impaired
97(1)
Refuge Spaces
98(2)
Sky Lobbies
100(1)
Impact of Emergency Responders
100(1)
Evacuation Management
101(4)
Development of Egress Plan
102(1)
Implementation
102(1)
Changes and Absentees
102(1)
Occupancy Types
103(1)
Assisted Evacuation
103(2)
12 Fire Resistance
105(30)
Performance Objectives for Fire Resistance of Very Tall Buildings
107(2)
Impact on Fire Resistance of Extended Time and Effort for Egress and Fire-Fighting Operations
109(3)
Methods to Determine Fire Resistance
112(9)
Prescriptive Approach
113(4)
Performance-Based Structural Fire Analysis
117(4)
Metrics for Performance-Based Structural Analysis
121(2)
Stability
122(1)
Integrity
122(1)
Compartmentation
122(1)
Fire Scenarios to Consider in Fire Resistance Design
123(2)
Consideration of Cooling Phase
125(1)
High Challenge Fire Hazards
125(1)
Coupling of Gravity and Lateral Load-Resisting Systems
126(1)
Structural Systems for Reducing Drift and Other Lateral Accelerations
126(2)
Consideration for Timber: Combustibility
128(3)
Consideration for Concrete Spalling
131(1)
Consideration for Fire Protection Material: Robustness
132(1)
Post-fire Assessment
133(1)
Post-earthquake Fire Risk
133(2)
13 Building Envelope/Enclosure
135(36)
Recent Fire Incidents and Lessons Learned
135(1)
Fire Safety Goals for New Construction
136(1)
Facade Types
137(8)
Curtain Walls
139(1)
Double-Skin Facades
140(1)
Built-Up Walls with a Cavity
141(2)
Built-Up Walls Without a Cavity
143(2)
Mechanisms of Fire Spread
145(5)
Fire Initiating Events
145(1)
Mechanisms of Fire Spread After Initiating Event
146(4)
Building Enclosure Design Considerations
150(9)
Combustible Components of the Enclosure: Material Considerations
151(2)
Insulation
153(1)
Membranes
154(1)
Framing
154(1)
Gaskets, Sealants, and Thermal Breaks
154(1)
Fire Barrier Systems at the Envelope-Floor Intersection
155(1)
Cavities in Facade Systems
155(1)
Double-Skinned Facade Considerations
156(1)
Vision Glass Considerations
156(1)
Geometry, Exterior Projections, and Windows
157(2)
Balconies and Building Exterior Appendages
159(2)
Use of Combustible Materials for Decorative Purposes
160(1)
Specialty Facade Systems: LED Display Screens, Photovoltaic (PV) Systems, and Vegetative Walls
160(1)
Fire Testing of Designs
161(7)
Reaction to Fire Tests of the Constituent Materials
162(1)
Fire Resistance Testing of Perimeter Fire Barriers With or Without Spandrels
162(1)
Fire Resistance Testing of Fire-Rated Facade Systems
163(1)
Large-Scale Fire Testing of the Facade System
164(3)
Fire Testing of the Roofing System
167(1)
Certification
167(1)
Risk Assessments
168(3)
14 Suppression
171(12)
Risk Assessment
171(1)
Fire Strategy
172(1)
Reliability
173(1)
System Documentation
174(1)
Key Issues
174(6)
Water Supply
174(6)
Water Hammer
180(1)
Facilities for Testing
180(3)
15 Detection and Alarm
183(12)
Reliability/Robustness
184(3)
Survivability
187(2)
Nuisance Alarms
189(1)
Voice Communication
189(1)
Visual Notification
190(2)
Mass Notification
192(3)
16 Smoke Control
195(20)
Factors that Influence Smoke Control in Very Tall Buildings
196(5)
Stack Effect
197(3)
Wind Effect
200(1)
Piston Effect of Elevators
200(1)
Building Environmental Control Systems (HVAC)
200(1)
Fire Safety Goals and Objectives for Smoke Control
201(1)
Sample Goals and Objectives
201(1)
Smoke Control Design Methods
202(2)
Passive Methods of or Approaches to Smoke Control
203(1)
Active Methods of or Approaches to Smoke Control
203(1)
Factors that Affect Analysis and Design of Smoke Control Systems
204(11)
Wind
204(1)
Operable Windows
205(1)
Reliability
206(2)
Stairway Pressurization
208(7)
17 First Responder Considerations
215(10)
Command and Control
216(1)
Communication
216(1)
Building Access
217(3)
Initial Response
220(1)
Coordination with Building Egress
221(4)
Fire Control/Command Center
221(4)
18 Electrical
225(6)
Emergency and Standby Power
226(2)
Emergency Lighting and Exit Signage
228(1)
Elevators
228(1)
Stay- or Defend-in-Place Coordination
229(2)
19 Buildings Under Construction
231(8)
Fire Hazards
231(1)
Challenges in Buildings Under Construction
232(2)
Phased Occupancy
234(1)
Partial Occupancy
235(1)
Tenant Changes
236(1)
Change of Use/Occupancy
236(1)
Major Repairs
237(2)
20 Building Life Cycle Management
239(4)
Building Operations
239(1)
Fire Wardens and Incident Management
240(3)
21 Commissioning
243(4)
Commissioning Starts with the Design
243(2)
Commissioning and the Construction Phase
245(1)
Commissioning Prior to Occupancy
246(1)
22 Existing Building Considerations
247(6)
Renovations and Additions
249(1)
Adaptive Reuse and Change of Occupancy
250(3)
23 Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance
253(6)
Integrated Systems
254(1)
Operations and Maintenance Manual
255(1)
Codes and Standards
256(1)
AHJ Inspections
256(1)
Documentation
257(2)
24 Aerial Vehicle Platforms
259(4)
Egress and Fire-Fighting Considerations
259(2)
Protection from Fires
261(2)
25 ESS in Very Tall Buildings
263(4)
Electrochemical Technologies
263(1)
Thermal Runaway
264(1)
Hazards
265(2)
References 267
The Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE) is the professional society representing those practicing the field of fire protection engineering. The Society has over 4,600 members and 92 chapters, including 17 student chapters worldwide.

The purpose of SFPE is to advance the science and practice of fire protection engineering and its allied fields, to maintain a high ethical standard among its members and to foster fire protection engineering education.







 The International Code Council is a member-focused association. It is dedicated to developing model codes and standards used in the design, build and compliance process to construct safe, sustainable, affordable and resilient structures.