| Preface |
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xiv | |
| 1 Introduction |
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1 | (12) |
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1.1 Role of Forest Mensuration in Forest Management |
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2 | (1) |
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1.2 Forest Mensuration as a Tool for Monitoring Forests |
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3 | (1) |
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1.3 Relevance of Forest Mensuration for Ecology and Nontimber Resources |
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4 | (1) |
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1.4 Design and Planning of Inventories |
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5 | (8) |
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5 | (2) |
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1.4.2 Nontimber Estimation |
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7 | (1) |
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7 | (3) |
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1.4.4 Forest Inventory Design |
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10 | (1) |
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1.4.5 Inventory Fieldwork |
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11 | (2) |
| 2 Principles of Measurement |
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13 | (21) |
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2.1 Scales of Measurement |
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14 | (2) |
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16 | (1) |
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2.3 Systems of Measurement |
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16 | (5) |
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2.3.1 International System of Units (Metric System) |
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16 | (2) |
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18 | (2) |
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2.3.3 Conversions Between Systems |
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20 | (1) |
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21 | (1) |
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2.5 Precision, Accuracy, and Bias |
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21 | (2) |
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2.6 Significant Digits and Rounding Off |
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23 | (4) |
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2.6.1 Significant Digits in Measurements |
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23 | (1) |
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24 | (1) |
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2.6.3 Significant Digits in Arithmetic Operations |
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25 | (2) |
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2.7 Data Summary and Presentation |
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27 | (3) |
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28 | (1) |
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2.7.2 Graphic Presentation |
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28 | (1) |
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29 | (1) |
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2.8 Fundamental Measurements |
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30 | (4) |
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2.8.1 Linear Measurements |
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30 | (1) |
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31 | (1) |
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2.8.3 Weight Measurements |
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31 | (1) |
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32 | (1) |
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2.8.5 Volume Measurements |
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33 | (1) |
| 3 Basic Statistical Concepts |
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34 | (33) |
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3.1 Descriptive Statistics |
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34 | (4) |
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35 | (1) |
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35 | (3) |
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38 | (1) |
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3.2 Frequency Distributions |
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38 | (2) |
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3.3 Measures of Central Tendency |
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40 | (2) |
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40 | (1) |
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41 | (1) |
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3.3.3 Harmonic and Geometric Means |
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42 | (1) |
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42 | (1) |
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3.4 Measures of Dispersion |
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42 | (3) |
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3.4.1 Variance and Standard Deviation |
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43 | (2) |
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3.4.2 Coefficient of Variation |
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45 | (1) |
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45 | (5) |
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3.5.1 Standard Error of the Mean |
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46 | (2) |
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3.5.2 Confidence Interval |
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48 | (2) |
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3.6 Sample Size Determination |
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50 | (2) |
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3.7 Influence of Scalar Transformations and the Estimation of Totals |
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52 | (1) |
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3.8 Correlation and Regression Estimation |
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53 | (10) |
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3.8.1 Covariance and Correlation |
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53 | (3) |
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3.8.2 Simple Linear Regression |
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56 | (2) |
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3.8.3 Goodness-of-Fit and Regression Diagnostics |
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58 | (3) |
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3.8.4 Multiple Regression and Transformations |
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61 | (2) |
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3.8.5 Advanced Topics in Regression Analysis |
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63 | (1) |
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3.9 Use of Covariates to Improve Estimation |
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63 | (4) |
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64 | (1) |
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3.9.2 Regression Estimation |
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65 | (2) |
| 4 Land Area Determination in Forest Mensuration |
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67 | (25) |
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4.1 Land Distance and Area Units |
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68 | (1) |
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68 | (5) |
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69 | (1) |
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4.2.2 Distances with Chains and Tapes |
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69 | (2) |
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4.2.3 Optical Rangefinders |
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71 | (1) |
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4.2.4 Electronic Distance Measurement Devices |
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71 | (1) |
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72 | (1) |
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4.3 Measuring Area in the Field |
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73 | (1) |
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4.4 Measuring Area Using Maps and Photos |
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73 | (3) |
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4.4.1 Area by Coordinates |
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73 | (2) |
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4.4.2 Area by Dot Grids and Line Transects |
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75 | (1) |
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4.4.3 Area by Planimeters |
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76 | (1) |
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4.5 Determination of Photo Scale |
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76 | (4) |
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4.6 Determination of Direction Using a Compass |
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80 | (2) |
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4.6.1 Magnetic Declination |
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80 | (2) |
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4.7 The U.S. Public Land Surveys |
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82 | (4) |
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4.8 Global Positioning Systems |
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86 | (3) |
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86 | (1) |
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86 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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88 | (1) |
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4.8.5 Using GPS Data in Forest Mensuration |
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89 | (1) |
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4.9 Geographic Information Systems |
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89 | (3) |
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4.9.1 Applications of GIS to Forest Mensuration |
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90 | (2) |
| 5 Individual Tree Parameters |
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92 | (43) |
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92 | (3) |
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5.2 Tree Diameters and Cross-Sectional Areas |
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95 | (13) |
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5.2.1 Instruments for Measuring Diameter |
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98 | (5) |
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5.2.2 Measurement of Upper-Stem Diameters |
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103 | (1) |
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5.2.3 Cross-Sectional Area |
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104 | (2) |
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106 | (1) |
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5.2.5 Applications to Understory Plants |
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107 | (1) |
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108 | (13) |
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5.3.1 Hypsometers Based on Similar Triangles |
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110 | (2) |
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5.3.2 Hypsometers Based on Trigonometry |
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112 | (5) |
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5.3.3 Special Considerations in Measuring Tree Heights |
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117 | (3) |
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120 | (1) |
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121 | (4) |
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121 | (1) |
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122 | (1) |
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5.4.3 Taper Tables, Curves, and Formulas |
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123 | (1) |
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124 | (1) |
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125 | (5) |
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125 | (1) |
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5.5.2 Crown Diameter and Area |
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126 | (1) |
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5.5.3 Crown Surface Area and Volume |
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127 | (1) |
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5.5.4 Foliage Area and Biomass |
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128 | (1) |
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5.5.5 Other Crown Characteristics |
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129 | (1) |
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5.6 Regression and Allometric Approaches |
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130 | (5) |
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5.6.1 Allometry of Standing Trees |
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130 | (2) |
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5.6.2 Applications to Seedlings, Saplings, and Understory Plants |
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132 | (3) |
| 6 Determination of Tree Volume, Weight, and Biomass |
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135 | (49) |
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6.1 Measurement of Individual Trees |
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137 | (19) |
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137 | (1) |
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6.1.2 Volume Determination by Displacement |
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138 | (1) |
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6.1.3 Volume Determination by Formulas |
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139 | (5) |
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6.1.4 Determination of Cubic Volume by Graphical Methods and Integration |
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144 | (3) |
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6.1.5 Determination of Crown and Root Volumes |
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147 | (1) |
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6.1.6 Determination of Bark Volume |
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148 | (3) |
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6.1.7 Weight Determination |
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151 | (2) |
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6.1.8 Biomass Determination |
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153 | (1) |
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6.1.9 Carbon and Nutrient Content Determination |
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154 | (2) |
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6.2 Allometric Equations for Volume, Weight, and Biomass |
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156 | (4) |
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6.2.1 Standard and Form Class Functions |
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157 | (1) |
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158 | (1) |
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6.2.3 Volume Functions to Upper-Stem Diameter Limits |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (7) |
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6.3.1 Descriptive Information to Accompany Tables |
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165 | (1) |
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6.3.2 Checking Applicability of Tables |
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166 | (1) |
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6.3.3 Conversion of Volume Tables to Weight, Biomass, or Carbon and Nutrient Tables |
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166 | (1) |
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6.4 Volume and Biomass Distribution in Trees |
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167 | (6) |
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6.4.1 Methods for Estimating Stem Volume Distribution |
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167 | (3) |
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6.4.2 Distribution of Weight and Biomass in Trees |
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170 | (3) |
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6.5 Other Methods of Estimating Tree Content |
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173 | (6) |
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6.5.1 Determination of Volume by Height Accumulation |
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173 | (3) |
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6.5.2 Importance Sampling and Centroid Methods |
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176 | (3) |
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6.6 Applications to Seedlings and Understory Vegetation |
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179 | (1) |
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6.7 Applications to Snags and Down Woody Material |
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179 | (5) |
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6.7.1 Standing Dead Trees |
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179 | (2) |
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6.7.2 Downed Woody Material |
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181 | (3) |
| 7 Measurement of Primary Forest Products |
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184 | (26) |
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7.1 Units of Measurement of Forest Products |
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184 | (2) |
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184 | (1) |
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7.1.2 Volume Units for Stacked Wood |
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185 | (1) |
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186 | (1) |
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186 | (9) |
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7.3.1 Mill-Study Log Rules |
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187 | (1) |
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187 | (2) |
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7.3.3 Mathematical Log Rules |
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189 | (2) |
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7.3.4 Combination Log Rules |
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191 | (1) |
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7.3.5 Comparison of Log Rules |
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191 | (1) |
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7.3.6 Tabular Presentation of Log Rules |
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192 | (3) |
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195 | (4) |
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195 | (3) |
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7.4.2 Cubic Volume Scaling |
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198 | (1) |
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7.4.3 Unmerchantable Logs |
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198 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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7.5 Scaling Stacked Volume |
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199 | (1) |
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7.6 Volume Unit Conversion |
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200 | (4) |
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7.6.1 Determination of Solid Cubic Contents of Stacked Wood |
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202 | (2) |
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204 | (6) |
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7.7.1 Weight Measurement of Pulpwood |
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204 | (3) |
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7.7.2 Weight Measurement of Sawlogs |
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207 | (1) |
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7.7.3 Weight Measurement of Pulp |
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208 | (1) |
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7.7.4 Weight Measurement of Other Forest Products |
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209 | (1) |
| 8 Stand Parameters |
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210 | (63) |
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211 | (1) |
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8.1.1 Even-Aged and Single-Cohort Stands |
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211 | (1) |
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8.1.2 Uneven-Aged and Multicohort Stands |
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211 | (1) |
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212 | (7) |
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8.2.1 Describing Species Composition |
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213 | (1) |
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8.2.2 Number and Diversity of Species |
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214 | (4) |
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8.2.3 Assigning Stand Types |
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218 | (1) |
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219 | (9) |
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8.3.1 Expressions of Mean Diameter |
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220 | (1) |
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221 | (1) |
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8.3.3 Diameter Distributions |
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221 | (7) |
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228 | (4) |
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8.4.1 Expressions of Mean Height |
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229 | (1) |
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8.4.2 Height-Diameter Curves |
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230 | (1) |
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8.4.3 Height-Diameter Ratio |
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231 | (1) |
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8.5 Volume, Weight, and Biomass |
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232 | (4) |
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232 | (2) |
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8.5.2 Weight, Biomass, and Carbon Content |
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234 | (1) |
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8.5.3 Volume, Weight, and Biomass of Dead Wood |
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235 | (1) |
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8.6 Crown and Canopy Measurements |
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236 | (3) |
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8.6.1 Crown Closure and Canopy Cover |
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236 | (1) |
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237 | (2) |
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8.7 Understory and Regeneration |
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239 | (11) |
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8.7.1 Density and Frequency |
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240 | (1) |
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8.7.2 Cover and Competition |
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241 | (5) |
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246 | (1) |
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8.7.4 Regeneration Surveys |
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247 | (3) |
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250 | (9) |
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8.8.1 Geocentric Approaches |
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251 | (2) |
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8.8.2 Phytocentric Approaches Using Vegetation Composition |
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253 | (1) |
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8.8.3 Dendrocentric Approaches |
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254 | (3) |
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8.8.4 Preparation of Site Index Curves |
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257 | (2) |
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259 | (14) |
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8.9.1 Relative Density Based on Volume |
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260 | (1) |
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8.9.2 Stand Density Index |
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261 | (2) |
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263 | (1) |
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8.9.4 Crown Competition Factor |
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264 | (2) |
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266 | (1) |
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8.9.6 Density of Mixed-Species and Complex-Structure Stands |
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266 | (1) |
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8.9.7 Point Density and Competition Indices |
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266 | (3) |
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8.9.8 Forest Stocking and Density Management Diagrams |
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269 | (4) |
| 9 Sampling Units for Estimating Parameters |
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273 | (32) |
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274 | (2) |
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276 | (11) |
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276 | (1) |
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9.2.2 Square and Rectangular Plots |
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277 | (1) |
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278 | (1) |
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9.2.4 Selection of Plots and Trees |
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279 | (1) |
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9.2.5 Stand and Stock Tables |
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280 | (4) |
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284 | (3) |
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9.3 Sampling Trees with Variable Probability |
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287 | (11) |
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9.3.1 Horizontal Point Samples |
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287 | (6) |
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9.3.2 Stand and Stock Tables |
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293 | (3) |
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9.3.3 Boundary Slopover Bias |
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296 | (1) |
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9.3.4 Other Forms of Sampling Proportional to Size |
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296 | (2) |
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9.4 Other Examples of Variable Probability Sampling |
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298 | (1) |
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9.4.1 Point Intercept Sampling |
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298 | (1) |
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9.4.2 Line Intercept Sampling |
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299 | (1) |
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9.5 Distance-Based Sampling Units |
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299 | (4) |
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9.5.1 Nearest-Neighbor Methods |
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299 | (3) |
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302 | (1) |
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9.6 Selecting Appropriate Sampling Units |
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303 | (2) |
| 10 Sampling Designs in Forest Inventories |
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305 | (56) |
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10.1 Basic Considerations |
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305 | (6) |
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10.1.1 Errors in Forest Inventories |
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306 | (2) |
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308 | (2) |
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10.1.3 Precision Level and Intensity |
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310 | (1) |
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10.2 Simple Random Sampling (SRS) |
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311 | (7) |
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10.2.1 Influence of Plot Size on Simple Random Sample Designs |
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315 | (3) |
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10.3 Systematic Sampling (SYS) |
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318 | (8) |
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10.3.1 Systematic Plot Sampling |
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318 | (4) |
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10.3.2 Sampling Error for a SYS Inventory |
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322 | (2) |
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10.3.3 Systematic Strip Sampling |
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324 | (2) |
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10.4 Selective or Opportunistic Sampling |
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326 | (1) |
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10.5 Stratified Sampling (STS) |
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327 | (7) |
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10.5.1 Estimation of Number of Sampling Units |
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330 | (2) |
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332 | (2) |
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334 | (4) |
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338 | (5) |
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10.8 Sampling with Covariates |
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343 | (10) |
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10.8.1 Regression Sampling |
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344 | (5) |
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349 | (4) |
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353 | (4) |
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357 | (4) |
| 11 Inventory of Standing Trees Using Sampling with Varying Probability |
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361 | (32) |
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11.1 Horizontal Point Sampling (HPS) |
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362 | (15) |
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11.1.1 Angle Gauges for HPS |
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362 | (5) |
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11.1.2 Photographic Methods |
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367 | (1) |
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368 | (1) |
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11.1.4 Choosing a Suitable Gauge Constant |
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369 | (2) |
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11.1.5 Proper Use of Gauges |
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371 | (1) |
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11.1.6 Checking Questionable Trees |
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372 | (2) |
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374 | (1) |
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11.1.8 Leaning and Hidden Trees |
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374 | (1) |
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375 | (1) |
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11.1.10 Special-Purpose Modifications of HPS |
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376 | (1) |
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377 | (9) |
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377 | (5) |
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382 | (4) |
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11.3 Other Variable Probability Sampling Techniques |
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386 | (7) |
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11.3.1 Horizontal Line Sampling (HLS) |
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386 | (3) |
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11.3.2 Vertical Point and Line Sampling |
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389 | (2) |
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11.3.3 Critical Height Sampling |
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391 | (2) |
| 12 Inventory of Downed Dead Material Using Sampling with Varying Probability |
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393 | (36) |
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394 | (4) |
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12.2 Line Intersect Sampling |
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398 | (8) |
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12.2.1 Assumptions of Line Intersect Sampling |
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399 | (2) |
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12.2.2 Estimating Downed Wood Parameters |
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401 | (3) |
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12.2.3 Choosing a Line Length and Design |
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404 | (2) |
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12.2.4 Adaptation for Fine Fuels |
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406 | (1) |
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406 | (8) |
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12.3.1 Transect Relascope Sampling |
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406 | (4) |
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12.3.2 Point Relascope Sampling |
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410 | (1) |
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12.3.3 Gauge Construction and Choice of Angle |
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411 | (2) |
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12.3.4 Estimating Downed Wood Parameters |
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413 | (1) |
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413 | (1) |
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12.4 Perpendicular Distance Sampling (PDS) |
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414 | (11) |
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415 | (4) |
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12.4.2 Distance-Limited PDS |
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419 | (1) |
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12.4.3 PDS for Other Attributes |
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420 | (2) |
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12.4.4 Estimating Multiple Downed Wood Attributes |
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422 | (2) |
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12.4.5 Choosing a Design and Factor |
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424 | (1) |
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425 | (2) |
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12.5.1 Diameter Relascope Sampling |
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425 | (1) |
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12.5.2 Critical Length Sampling |
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426 | (1) |
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12.5.3 Line Intersect Distance Sampling |
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426 | (1) |
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12.6 Design Considerations and Selection of Methods |
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427 | (2) |
| 13 Integrating Remote Sensing in Forest Inventory |
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429 | (26) |
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13.1 Types of Remotely Sensed Data |
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429 | (13) |
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13.1.1 Aerial Analog Photography |
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431 | (2) |
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13.1.2 Moderate-Resolution Optical Data |
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433 | (2) |
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13.1.3 High-Resolution Optical Data |
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435 | (1) |
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436 | (4) |
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13.1.5 Synthetic Aperture Radar |
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440 | (1) |
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13.1.6 Hyperspectral Data |
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441 | (1) |
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13.2 Remote Sensing for Stratification |
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442 | (4) |
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13.2.1 Photo Interpretation and Stand Mapping |
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442 | (2) |
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13.2.2 Pixel-Based Classification |
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|
444 | (1) |
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13.2.3 Object-Oriented Classification |
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|
444 | (1) |
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13.2.4 Effects of Misclassification on Estimation |
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|
445 | (1) |
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13.3 Individual Tree Measurements |
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|
446 | (3) |
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|
447 | (1) |
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|
448 | (1) |
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13.3.3 Estimating Stand Characteristics |
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448 | (1) |
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13.4 Remote Sensing for Covariates |
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|
449 | (6) |
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13.4.1 Tree and Stand Attributes and Sampling Covariates |
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|
449 | (2) |
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13.4.2 Applications to Ratio and Regression Sampling |
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|
451 | (2) |
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13.4.3 Imputation and Mapping |
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|
453 | (1) |
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13.4.4 Areal Importance Sampling |
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|
454 | (1) |
| 14 Measurement of Tree and Stand Growth |
|
455 | (64) |
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14.1 Individual Tree Growth |
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456 | (4) |
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14.1.1 Tree Growth Curves |
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|
456 | (2) |
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|
458 | (2) |
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14.2 Direct Measurement of Tree Growth |
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|
460 | (5) |
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14.2.1 Diameter Growth Measurement |
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|
461 | (1) |
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14.2.2 Height Growth Measurement |
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462 | (1) |
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14.2.3 Crown Growth Measurements |
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463 | (1) |
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14.2.4 Belowground Growth Measurements |
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463 | (2) |
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14.3 Reconstructing Tree Growth |
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|
465 | (9) |
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|
465 | (1) |
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14.3.2 Estimating Diameter Growth from Increment Cores |
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|
466 | (6) |
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14.3.3 Allometric Relationships |
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|
472 | (2) |
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14.4 Stand and Forest Growth |
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|
474 | (5) |
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14.4.1 Components of Stand Growth |
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|
474 | (1) |
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14.4.2 Types of Stand Growth |
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|
475 | (4) |
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14.5 Measurement of Stand and Forest Growth and Yield |
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|
479 | (15) |
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14.5.1 Stand Reconstruction |
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|
479 | (2) |
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14.5.2 Estimation of Stand Growth and Yield from Temporary Sample Plots |
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|
481 | (1) |
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14.5.3 Estimation of Stand Growth and Yield from Fixed-Area Permanent Sample Plots |
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|
481 | (3) |
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14.5.4 Estimation of Stand Growth and Yield from Permanent Variable Probability Sample Points |
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|
484 | (10) |
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14.6 Considerations for the Design and Maintenance of Permanent Sample Plot Systems |
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|
494 | (9) |
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14.6.1 Sampling Unit Type |
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|
497 | (1) |
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14.6.2 Sampling Unit Size and Shape |
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|
498 | (1) |
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14.6.3 Sampling Unit Layout |
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|
498 | (1) |
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14.6.4 Measurement Protocols |
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|
499 | (4) |
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14.7 Growth and Yield Models |
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|
503 | (16) |
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14.7.1 Stand Table Projection |
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|
504 | (5) |
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14.7.2 Yield Tables and Equations |
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|
509 | (7) |
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14.7.3 Diameter Distribution Models |
|
|
516 | (1) |
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14.7.4 Individual Tree Growth and Yield Models |
|
|
516 | (1) |
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14.7.5 Other Types of Models |
|
|
517 | (1) |
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14.7.6 Feedbacks between Growth and Yield Models and Forest Mensuration |
|
|
518 | (1) |
| Appendix |
|
519 | (31) |
| References |
|
550 | (42) |
| Index |
|
592 | |