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E-raamat: Fundamentals of Corrosion and Scaling for Petroleum & Environmental Engineers

, , (Professor of Petroleum Engineering
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif (U.S.A.))
  • Formaat: EPUB+DRM
  • Ilmumisaeg: 25-Nov-2013
  • Kirjastus: Gulf Publishing Company
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9780127999913
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Fundamentals of Corrosion and Scaling for Petroleum & Environmental EngineersSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: EPUB+DRM
  • Ilmumisaeg: 25-Nov-2013
  • Kirjastus: Gulf Publishing Company
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9780127999913
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Scale, or deposits, can build up in the wellbore tubulars and other downhole components, causing considerable damage to the life of the well. Infrastructure provides the support for the wells system and with oil and gas consumption on the rise and transportation required to feed that demand, all petroleum and pipeline engineers must have accurate corrosion and scaling information. The Fundamentals of Corrosion and Scaling for Petroleum and Environmental Engineers will provide the quick knowledge that engineers need to not only enhance the reliability of corrosion and scale control technologies but also manage scale deposits, prevent fatigue and ensure equipment integrity.

Acknowledgments xiii
Preface xv
Foreword xvii
1 Introduction to Corrosion 1
1.1 Introduction
1
1.2 Definition of Corrosion
2
1.3 Introduction to Electrochemistry
2
1.4 Corrosion Agents in Drilling and Producing Operations
4
1.5 Requirements for Electrochemical Corrosion
5
1.5.1 Components of Electrochemical Corrosion
10
1.6 Chemistry of Corrosion and Electromotive Force Series
11
1.6.1 Actual Electrode Potentials
12
1.7 Galvanic Series
13
1.7.1 Cathode/Anode Areal Ratio
14
1.7.2 Polarization
14
1.8 Corrosion of Steel
16
1.9 Gaseous Corrodants
17
1.9.1 Oxygen
18
1.9.2 Hydrogen Sulfide
19
1.9.3 Carbon Dioxide
23
1.9.4 Alkalinity of Environment
24
1.10 Cathodic Protection
27
1.11 Role of Bacteria in Corrosion
27
1.12 Corrosion in Gas-Condensate Wells
28
1.13 Corrosion Rate Measurement Units
31
2 Types of Corrosion 35
2.1 Introduction
35
2.2 Sweet Corrosion
36
2.3 Sour Corrosion
37
2.4 Classes of Corrosion
38
2.4.1 Stress-Induced Corrosion
41
2.5 Types of Cracking in Drilling and Producing Environments
42
2.5.1 Hydrogen Embrittlement (Sulfide Cracking)
42
2.5.2 Hydrogen Blistering
43
2.5.3 Corrosion Fatigue
43
3 Microbial Corrosion 49
3.1 Introduction
49
3.1.1 Microbial Growth and Metabolism
52
3.2 Microbes Associated with Oilfield Corrosion
57
3.3 Microbial Interaction with Produced Oil
59
3.4 Microorganisms in Corrosion
59
3.4.1 Prokaryotes
60
3.4.2 Eukaryotes
62
3.5 Different Mechanisms of Microbial Corrosion
62
3.6 Corrosion Inhibition by Bacteria
64
3.7 Microbial Corrosion Control
64
4 Corrosion Control and Detection 71
4.1 Introduction to Corrosion Control
71
4.2 Cathodic Protection
71
4.3 Conditions for the Steady State or Limiting Corrosion Rate
75
4.3.1 Dangerous Inhibitors
79
4.4 Inhibitors and Passivators
79
4.4.1 Classification of inhibitors
81
4.5 Coating
84
4.6 Detection of Corrosion
86
4.6.1 Chemical Tests
86
4.6.2 Microbial Tests
86
4.6.3 Electrochemical Tests
87
4.6.4 Pipeline Tests
87
4.7 Measurement of Corrosion
88
4.7.1 Visual Inspection
88
4.7.2 Caliper Surveys
88
4.7.3 Casing Thickness Logs
89
4.7.4 Radiography
89
4.8 Nondestructive Test Methods
89
4.8.1 Metal Loss Rate Tests Using Coupons
90
4.8.2 Other Corrosion Rate Monitors
90
5 Casing and Pipeline Corrosion 93
5.1 Introduction
93
5.2 Types of Casing
93
5.2.1 Cassion Pipe
94
5.2.2 Conductor Pipe
94
5.2.3 Surface Casing
96
5.2.4 Intermediate Casing
96
5.2.5 Production Casing
97
5.2.6 Liners
97
5.3 Corrosion of Steel
99
5.3.1 External Casing Corrosion
99
5.3.2 Casing Corrosion Inspection Tools
100
5.4 Protection of Casing from Corrosion
102
5.4.1 Wellhead Insulation
103
5.4.2 Cementation
103
5.4.3 Completion Fluids
104
5.4.4 Steel Grades
105
5.4.5 Casing Leaks
106
5.4.6 Cathodic Protection of Casing
106
5.5 Interaction of Old with New Pipeline
113
6 Scaling 117
6.1 Hardness and Alkalinity
117
6.2 Mineral Scales
118
6.2.1 Calcium Carbonate Scale
118
6.2.2 Sulfate Scales
123
6.3 Prediction of Scale Formation
123
6.4 Solubilities of Various Sulfates and Carbonates
131
6.5 Solubility of Calcite, Dolomite, and Magnesite and Mixture of These Carbonates
131
6.6 Relative Permeability Concepts
132
6.6.1 Effect of Water Hardness on Relative Permeability Curves
135
6.6.2 Effect of Water Chemistry on Oil Recovery
137
6.7 Scale Inhibition
137
7 Water Quality Control 141
7.1 Introduction
141
7.2 Injection Suitability
142
7.2.1 Clay Swelling
142
7.2.2 Formation and Deposition of Insoluble Material in the Formation
144
7.2.3 Increase in Oil Saturation
145
7.2.4 Suspended Solids
146
7.2.5 Movement of Formation Fines
147
7.2.6 Sources of Suspended Solids
148
7.3 Corrosion
150
7.3.1 Some Causes of Waterflood Corrosion
152
7.3.2 Carbon Dioxide
152
7.3.3 Hydrogen Sulfide
152
7.3.4 Oxygen
153
7.3.5 Interactions of the Gases
154
7.3.6 Bacterial Corrosion (See
Chapter 3)
155
7.4 Use of Seawater for Injection Purposes
155
7.4.1 Characteristics of Seawater
156
7.4.2 Dissolved Oxygen
157
7.4.3 Calcium Carbonate Saturation
157
7.4.4 pH of Seawater
157
7.4.5 High Sulfate Ion Content
158
7.4.6 Magnesium Ion
158
7.4.7 Marine Life
158
7.4.8 Seasonal Changes in Composition of Seawater
159
7.4.9 Oil Content
159
7.5 Selection of Water Intake Location
159
7.5.1 Shallow Well in Seawater Aquifer
160
7.5.2 Intake from Nearshore Area
160
7.5.3 Offshore Intake
161
7.6 Design of Water Intake
161
7.6.1 Trash Screen
161
7.6.2 Fine Screen
161
7.6.3 Chlorination
162
7.6.4 Filtration
162
7.6.5 Deaeration of Seawater
163
7.6.6 Oxygen Scavenging
163
7.6.7 Stabilization of Seawater
164
7.6.8 Temperature of Seawater
164
7.6.9 Biocidal Treatment of Seawater
165
7.6.10 Corrosion Inhibition
165
7.7 Test Methods Used in Waterflooding Operations
166
7.7.1 Dissolved Oxygen
166
7.7.2 pH Change
167
7.7.3 The Membrane Filter Test
168
7.7.4 Total Iron Count Increase
169
7.7.5 Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria
169
7.7.6 Total Bacteria
170
7.7.7 Corrosion Coupons
171
7.7.8 Significance of Various Tests
173
7.7.9 Reporting of Test Data
183
7.8 COPRA Correlation
183
7.9 Preparation of Water for Subsurface Injection
184
7.9.1 Oil Removal
185
7.9.2 Gravity Separation
186
7.9.3 Flotation
188
7.9.4 Removal of Solids (Filtration)
189
7.9.5 Slow Sand Filters
190
7.9.6 Rapid Sand Filters
190
7.9.7 High-Rate Rapid Sand Filters
191
7.9.8 Diatomaceous Earth Filters
194
7.9.9 Selection of Diatomite
194
7.10 Removal of Dissolved Gases
196
7.11 Equipment Considerations
196
7.11.1 Pipelines
196
7.11.2 Separators
197
7.11.3 Volume and Origin of Suspended Material to Be Removed
198
7.11.4 Aggressiveness of Waters
199
7.11.5 Value of Space on Which Facilities Are to Be Located
199
7.11.6 Filtration Equipment
199
7.11.7 Clarification
200
7.11.8 In-line Flocculation Systems
200
7.11.9 Filter-aid Filters and In-line Flocculation Filters
201
7.12 Degassing Equipment
202
7.12.1 Deaeration Equipment
202
7.13 Chemical Mixing and Feed Equipment
202
8 Economics of Corrosion 209
8.1 Introduction
209
8.2 Direct and Indirect Cost of Corrosion
210
8.3 Major Industrial Categories of Corrosion Costs
211
8.3.1 Infrastructure
212
8.3.2 Utilities
213
8.3.3 Production and Manufacturing
214
8.4 Corrosion-Control Economics and Preventive Methods
217
8.5 Galvanic Versus Imposed Direct Electrical Current in Cathodic Protection
219
A Sample Problems and Questions 223
A.1 Sample Problems and Questions (Solutions and Answers are Provided)
223
A.2 Sample Questions and Problems (No Solutions)
233
B Glossary 237
C Conversion of Units 257
C.1 Temperature Conversion Formulas
264
C.2 Approximate Equivalents
264
C.3 Theoretical Aspects
265
Index 269
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