Preface |
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v | |
Plan of the Book |
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xv | |
Notation |
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xvii | |
Historical Introduction |
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xxi | |
1 Ancient times |
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xxi | |
2 The rise of calculus |
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xxiii | |
3 The ban of infinitesimals |
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xxvi | |
4 Non-Archimedean mathematics |
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xxvii | |
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1 | (74) |
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Chapter 1 Extending the Real Line |
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3 | (10) |
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3 | (1) |
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4 | (2) |
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3 The smallest non-Archimedean field |
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6 | (2) |
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4 Proper extensions of the real line |
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8 | (1) |
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9 | (2) |
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11 | (2) |
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13 | (34) |
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1 The axioms of Alpha-Calculus |
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14 | (3) |
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2 First properties of Alpha-Calculus |
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17 | (3) |
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3 Hyper-extensions of sets of reals |
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20 | (3) |
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4 The Alpha-measure and the qualified sets |
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23 | (3) |
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5 The transfer principle, informally |
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26 | (1) |
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6 Hyper-extensions of functions |
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27 | (3) |
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7 Some more relevant basic properties |
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30 | (2) |
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8 Hyper-extensions of sets of numbers |
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32 | (2) |
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9 The Qualified Set Axiom |
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34 | (4) |
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38 | (3) |
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11 Models of Alpha-Calculus |
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41 | (6) |
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Chapter 3 Infinitesimal Analysis by Alpha-Calculus |
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47 | (28) |
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47 | (1) |
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48 | (1) |
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49 | (3) |
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52 | (1) |
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53 | (1) |
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54 | (3) |
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7 Alpha-limit versus limit |
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57 | (1) |
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58 | (3) |
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9 Hyperfinitely long sums and series |
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61 | (2) |
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63 | (4) |
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11 Equivalences with the "standard" definitions |
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67 | (4) |
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12 Grid integral versus Riemann integral |
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71 | (1) |
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72 | (3) |
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75 | (78) |
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Chapter 4 Introducing the Alpha-Theory |
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77 | (32) |
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1 The axioms of Alpha-Theory |
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77 | (3) |
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2 First properties of Alpha-Theory |
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80 | (3) |
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83 | (5) |
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88 | (3) |
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5 Hyper-images of functions |
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91 | (3) |
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6 Functions of several variables |
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94 | (2) |
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96 | (2) |
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98 | (2) |
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100 | (7) |
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107 | (2) |
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Chapter 5 Logic and Alpha-Theory |
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109 | (14) |
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109 | (6) |
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115 | (3) |
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3 Transfer and internal sets |
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118 | (2) |
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4 The transfer as a unifying principle |
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120 | (2) |
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122 | (1) |
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Chapter 6 Complements of Alpha-Theory |
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123 | (30) |
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1 Overspill and underspill |
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123 | (3) |
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126 | (3) |
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3 Cauchy infinitesimal principle |
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129 | (4) |
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133 | (4) |
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5 The topology of Alpha-limits |
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137 | (1) |
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138 | (4) |
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142 | (4) |
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8 Existence of reflexive Alpha-morphisms |
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146 | (5) |
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151 | (2) |
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153 | (56) |
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Chapter 7 First Applications |
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155 | (14) |
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1 The real line as a quotient of hyperrationals |
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155 | (1) |
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156 | (3) |
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159 | (4) |
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4 Grid differential equations |
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163 | (2) |
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165 | (4) |
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169 | (16) |
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169 | (3) |
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172 | (1) |
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3 Topological notions for gauge spaces |
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173 | (1) |
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4 Topology theorems in gauge spaces |
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174 | (2) |
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5 Gauge spaces versus topological spaces |
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176 | (5) |
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181 | (4) |
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Chapter 9 Gauge Quotients |
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185 | (12) |
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1 Definition of gauge quotients |
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185 | (2) |
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2 The differential Epsilon-ring |
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187 | (2) |
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3 Distributions as a gauge quotient |
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189 | (2) |
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4 Distributions as functionals |
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191 | (2) |
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5 Grid functions and distributions |
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193 | (4) |
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Chapter 10 Stochastic Differential Equations |
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197 | (12) |
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1 Preliminary remarks on the white noise |
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197 | (2) |
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2 Stochastic grid equations |
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199 | (2) |
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3 Ito's formula for grid functions |
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201 | (1) |
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4 The Fokker-Plank equation |
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202 | (4) |
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206 | (3) |
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209 | (52) |
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Chapter 11 Ultrafilters and Ultrapowers |
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211 | (12) |
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1 Filters and ultrafilters |
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211 | (4) |
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2 Ultrafilters as measures and as ideals |
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215 | (3) |
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3 Ultrapowers, the basic examples |
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218 | (2) |
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4 Ultrapowers as models of Alpha-Calculus |
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220 | (3) |
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Chapter 12 The Uniqueness Problem |
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223 | (10) |
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1 Isomorphic models of Alpha-Calculus |
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223 | (2) |
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2 Equivalent models of Alpha-Calculus |
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225 | (2) |
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3 Uniqueness up to countable equivalence |
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227 | (6) |
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Chapter 13 Alpha-Theory and Nonstandard Analysis |
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233 | (8) |
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1 Nonstandard analysis, a quick presentation |
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234 | (2) |
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2 Alpha-Theory is more general than nonstandard analysis |
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236 | (2) |
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238 | (3) |
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Chapter 14 Alpha-Theory as a Nonstandard Set Theory |
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241 | (20) |
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242 | (5) |
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2 Alpha Set Theory versus ZFC |
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247 | (4) |
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3 Cauchy infinitesimal principle and special ultrafilters |
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251 | (3) |
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4 The strength of Cauchy infinitesimal principle |
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254 | (3) |
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5 The strength of a Hausdorff S-topology |
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257 | (2) |
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259 | (2) |
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261 | (46) |
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Chapter 15 Counting Systems |
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263 | (14) |
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263 | (4) |
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2 Cardinals and ordinals as counting systems |
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267 | (3) |
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3 Three different ways of counting |
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270 | (1) |
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271 | (6) |
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Chapter 16 Alpha-Theory and Numerosity |
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277 | (20) |
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277 | (3) |
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280 | (1) |
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3 Finite parts and sets of functions |
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281 | (2) |
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4 Point sets of natural numbers |
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283 | (2) |
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5 Numerosity of sets of natural numbers |
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285 | (2) |
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6 Properties of Alpha-numerosity |
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287 | (3) |
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7 Numerosities of sets of rational numbers |
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290 | (3) |
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8 Zermelo's principle and Alpha-numerosity |
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293 | (2) |
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9 Asymptotic density and numerosity |
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295 | (2) |
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Chapter 17 A General Numerosity Theory for Labelled Sets |
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297 | (10) |
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1 Definition and first properties |
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297 | (3) |
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2 From numerosities to Alpha-Calculus |
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300 | (6) |
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306 | (1) |
Bibliography |
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307 | (6) |
Index |
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313 | |