| Foreword |
|
3 | (2) |
| Acknowledgements |
|
5 | (8) |
| Abbreviations |
|
13 | (4) |
| Executive summary |
|
17 | (2) |
|
Chapter 1 Why does nitrogen matter? |
|
|
19 | (22) |
|
1.1 A doubling of global nitrogen fixation since pre-industrial time |
|
|
20 | (1) |
|
1.2 An essential nutrient, but a potential pollutant |
|
|
21 | (1) |
|
1.3 Nitrogen has multiple sources |
|
|
22 | (2) |
|
|
|
24 | (6) |
|
|
|
24 | (1) |
|
1.4.2 Greenhouse balance and ozone layer |
|
|
25 | (1) |
|
|
|
26 | (2) |
|
1.4.4 Ecosystems and biodiversity |
|
|
28 | (1) |
|
|
|
29 | (1) |
|
|
|
30 | (3) |
|
|
|
30 | (1) |
|
1.5.2 Greenhouse balance and ozone layer |
|
|
31 | (1) |
|
|
|
31 | (1) |
|
1.5.4 Ecosystems and biodiversity |
|
|
32 | (1) |
|
|
|
33 | (1) |
|
1.6 The "nitrogen cascade" |
|
|
33 | (8) |
|
|
|
36 | (2) |
|
|
|
38 | (3) |
|
Chapter 2 Proposed approach to address nitrogen pollution |
|
|
41 | (30) |
|
|
|
43 | (13) |
|
2.1.1 The different nitrogen risks |
|
|
43 | (1) |
|
2.1.2 Deepening pathway analysis to better manage risks of nitrogen pollution |
|
|
44 | (10) |
|
2.1.3 Feasibility of the risk approach |
|
|
54 | (1) |
|
2.1.4 The case of nitrous oxide (N2O) |
|
|
55 | (1) |
|
2.2 The "precautionary" approach |
|
|
56 | (15) |
|
|
|
65 | (2) |
|
|
|
67 | (4) |
|
Chapter 3 Examples of impact-pathway analysis and its translation into policy-making |
|
|
71 | (26) |
|
3.1 Case study 1: Impact-Pathway Analysis (IPA) and air pollution |
|
|
72 | (8) |
|
3.1.1 Urban air pollution |
|
|
72 | (2) |
|
3.1.2 Eutrophication of terrestrial ecosystems |
|
|
74 | (1) |
|
3.1.3 Policy relevance of IPA for air pollution risk management |
|
|
75 | (5) |
|
3.2 Case study 2: Impact-Pathway Analysis (IPA) and water pollution |
|
|
80 | (17) |
|
3.2.1 Coastal water pollution |
|
|
80 | (3) |
|
3.2.2 Lake water pollution |
|
|
83 | (2) |
|
3.2.3 Groundwater contamination |
|
|
85 | (3) |
|
3.2.4 Policy relevance of IPA for water pollution risk management |
|
|
88 | (4) |
|
|
|
92 | (2) |
|
|
|
94 | (3) |
|
Chapter 4 The unintended consequences on the nitrogen cycle of conservation practises in agriculture |
|
|
97 | (22) |
|
4.1 Managing nitrogen for agriculture and the environment |
|
|
98 | (1) |
|
4.2 Nitrogen pathways in crop production |
|
|
99 | (1) |
|
4.3 Nitrogen pathways in animal production |
|
|
100 | (1) |
|
4.4 Conservation practices and the nitrogen cycle |
|
|
101 | (5) |
|
4.4.1 Nutrient management |
|
|
102 | (1) |
|
|
|
103 | (1) |
|
|
|
104 | (1) |
|
|
|
104 | (1) |
|
|
|
104 | (1) |
|
|
|
104 | (1) |
|
4.4.7 Chemical additions to manure |
|
|
105 | (1) |
|
|
|
105 | (1) |
|
4.4.9 Slurry lagoon covers |
|
|
105 | (1) |
|
4.4.10 Manure incorporation and injection |
|
|
105 | (1) |
|
4.5 Changing nutrient management on cropland may result in environmental trade-offs |
|
|
106 | (2) |
|
4.5.1 NRCS Conservation Effects Assessment Project |
|
|
107 | (1) |
|
4.6 Water-air trade-offs in manure management |
|
|
108 | (1) |
|
4.7 Nitrous oxide (N2O) management practices |
|
|
109 | (1) |
|
4.8 Summary, conclusions and areas for further analysis |
|
|
110 | (9) |
|
|
|
112 | (1) |
|
|
|
113 | (6) |
|
Chapter 5 Criteria to guide nitrogen policy making |
|
|
119 | (18) |
|
|
|
120 | (4) |
|
5.2 The effectiveness, efficiency and feasibility of policy instruments |
|
|
124 | (5) |
|
5.2.1 A typology of policy instruments |
|
|
124 | (2) |
|
5.2.2 Effectiveness, efficiency and feasibility criteria |
|
|
126 | (3) |
|
5.3 Unintended effects related to the nitrogen cascade |
|
|
129 | (8) |
|
|
|
132 | (1) |
|
|
|
133 | (4) |
|
Chapter 6 An assessment of the effectiveness, efficiency and feasibility of nitrogen policy instruments |
|
|
137 | (28) |
|
|
|
138 | (8) |
|
6.2 Case studies of policy instruments |
|
|
146 | (19) |
|
6.2.1 The Swedish refund emission payment for nitrogen oxides (NOx): a combination of environmentally related tax and public financial support (PFS) |
|
|
146 | (1) |
|
6.2.2 Selected instrument combinations of relevance to nitrogen pollution |
|
|
147 | (4) |
|
6.2.3 The Greater Miami Watershed Trading Programme: an example of tradable permit system (TPS) |
|
|
151 | (1) |
|
6.2.4 Japan's automobile `nitrogen oxides (NOx) law': an example of direct environmental regulation (DER) |
|
|
152 | (2) |
|
6.2.5 Pennsylvania's Resource Enhancement and Protection Programme: an example of public financial support (PFS) |
|
|
154 | (1) |
|
6.2.6 The Agriculture and Environment Programme for Vittel area: an example of payment for ecosystem services (PES) |
|
|
154 | (1) |
|
6.2.7 Australia's `FERTCARE': an example of information measure |
|
|
155 | (2) |
|
6.2.8 Chesapeake 2000 Programme: an example of voluntary scheme |
|
|
157 | (2) |
|
|
|
159 | (2) |
|
|
|
161 | (4) |
|
Annex A Basic facts on nitrogen |
|
|
165 | (7) |
|
|
|
165 | (1) |
|
A.2 The nitrogen problem in brief |
|
|
166 | (1) |
|
A.3 Supplementary information on nitrogen impacts |
|
|
167 | (5) |
|
|
|
167 | (2) |
|
|
|
169 | (1) |
|
|
|
169 | (1) |
|
A.3.4 Ecosystems and biodiversity |
|
|
170 | (2) |
| Notes |
|
172 | (1) |
| References |
|
173 | |
Lisainfo e-raamatute kohta