E-raamat: Industrial Applications of X-Ray Diffraction

Preface iii Contributors xiii I. Introduction The Principles of Diffraction Analysis 3(10) Frank H. Chung Deane K. Smith History of Powder Diffraction Analysis 3(2) Fundamentals of X-Ray Diffraction 5(1) Single-Crystal Versus Powder Diffraction 6(3) Types of Radiation Used for Diffraction Analysis 9(1) Safety and Regulations in the Diffraction Laboratory 10(3) References 10(3) The Practice of Diffraction Analysis 13(24) Frank H. Chung Deane K. Smith Sources of Radiation 13(2) Diffraction Instrumentation 15(1) Crystallographic Databases 16(4) Extraction of Information from Diffraction Patterns 20(1) Analytical Methods 21(9) The Computer in Diffraction Analysis 30(1) Advantages of Diffraction Analysis 31(6) References 32(5) Progress and Potential of X-Ray Diffraction 37(18) Frank H. Chung Deane K. Smith Introduction 37(1) Evolution 37(2) Progress 39(9) Potentials 48(3) Conclusions 51(4) References 52(3) II. Industrial Applications High-Tech Semiconductors: Integrated Circuit Manufacture 55(34) C. C. Goldsmith I. C. Noyan Patrick De Haven T. L. Nunes Introduction 55(2) Applications 57(32) References 86(3) Superconductors: Structures and Applications 89(40) Winnie Wong-Ng Introduction 89(3) Applications of X-Ray Diffraction 92(30) Summary 122(7) References 122(7) Aerospace: The Aircraft Gas Turbine Industry 129(50) H. Jones Background and Definitions 129(2) Applications to Superalloys 131(6) Applications to Superalloys: Inspection of Cast Single-Crystal Components by the Laue Method 137(1) Automation of the Laue Process---SCORPIO 138(7) Research Activity for Directional Solidified Castings 145(1) Solid-State Processing of Superalloy Single Crystals 146(3) Phase Analysis of Superalloys 149(15) Applications to Alloy Design: Gamma-Gamma Prime Misfit 164(3) Rolling Elements 167(2) Residual Stress Analysis 169(2) Analysis of Phases in Thermal Barrier Coatings 171(3) Hardware and Software Recommendations 174(5) References 175(4) Selected Applications of X-Ray Diffraction in the Automotive Industry 179(14) C. K. Lowe-Ma M. J. Vinarcik General Considerations 179(2) Qualitative Analysis by Phase Identification 181(6) Quantitative Phase Analysis 187(2) Residual Stress/Retained Austenite 189(4) References 191(2) Petroleum Exploration and Production 193(14) Sampath S. Iyengar Introduction 193(1) Petroleum Exploration 193(9) Petroleum Production and Formation Damage 202(2) Identification of Scales, Drilling Mud, and Reaction Products 204(3) References 204(3) Petroleum and Petrochemicals 207(50) James A. Kaduk Introduction 207(1) Principles and Instrumentation 207(1) Technical Procedures 208(1) Illustrative Examples 208(44) Conclusions 252(5) References 253(4) Petroleum Catalysts 257(30) Ronald C. Medrud Introduction 257(4) Principles and Instrumentation 261(3) Technical Procedures 264(2) Illustrative Examples 266(12) Conclusions 278(9) References 279(8) Petrochemicals: Vitality of Catalysts Research 287(16) Ray Teller The Importance of Catalysis in the Petrochemical Industry 287(1) Types of Diffraction and Their Uses 288(4) Examples of Specific Applications 292(8) The Future of Diffraction in the Petrochemical Industry 300(3) References 301(2) Metals Hydrometallurgy 303(14) T. Havlik M. Skrobian What Is Hydrometallurgy? 303(1) Problems and Weak Points in Hydrometallurgy 303(2) Some Examples of Application 305(8) Conclusion 313(4) Suggested Reading 313(4) X-Ray Fractography 317(56) Y. Hirose T. Sasaki Introduction 317(13) Residual Stress Management 330(23) Gradient (Depth Profile) of Residual Stress 353(11) Use of Image Plate for X-Ray Stress Measurement 364(9) References 370(3) Minerals and Ceramics Mining: Exploration and Process Control 373(12) Johan de Villiers Introduction 373(1) Applications to Exploration 373(1) Applications to Mineral Dressing 374(1) Applications to Hydrometallurgical Processes 375(1) XRD in Pyrometallurgical Processes 376(1) XRD in On-line Process Control 377(2) Materials Characterization 379(2) Coal and Carbonaceous Materials 381(1) Applications to Health and Environmental Studies 381(1) Summary 382(3) References 382(3) Mining: Mineral Ores and Products 385(30) Frank R. Feret Introduction 385(1) Role of Methods Other than XRD in Mineral Analysis 386(2) XRD Methods 388(6) Iron Minerals and Their Identification by XRD 394(3) Selected Applications of the XRD Analysis in the Mining Industry 397(3) Discussion 400(15) References 401(14) Cement: Quantitative Phase Analysis of Portland Cement Clinker 415(26) I. C. Madsen N. V. Y. Scarlett Introduction 415(1) Method of Production 416(1) Phases in Clinker and Portland Cement 416(12) Non-X-Ray Methods of Phase Analysis 428(1) Methods of XRD Analysis 428(7) Accuracy of X-Ray Methods 435(2) Conclusions 437(4) References 437(4) Silica 441(30) N. J. Elton Deane K. Smith Introduction 441(4) Principles of Silica Analysis 445(8) Errors and Uncertainties in Quantitative XRD 453(6) Technical Procedures and Issues 459(6) Conclusions 465(6) References 466(5) Glass--Ceramics 471(24) Hans J. Holland Introduction 471(3) Instrumentation, Techniques, and Sample Preparation 474(2) Application of Techniques 476(12) Related Techniques 488(3) Summary 491(4) References 492(3) Polymers and Composites Polymer Industry 495(16) N. Sanjeeva Murthy Randolph Barton, Jr. Introduction 495(1) Instrumentation 496(1) Data Analysis and Interpretation 496(11) Significance of XRD Results 507(4) References 507(4) Paint and Pigment Industry 511(16) Frank H. Chung Introduction 511(2) X-Ray Diffraction for Chemical Analysis 513(8) Applications 521(2) Conclusions 523(4) References 524(3) Pharmaceuticals: Development and Formulation 527(12) Joel Bernstein Jan-Olav Henck Introduction 527(1) Principles, Instrumentation, and Technical Procedures 528(1) Applications 528(8) Summary and Prospects 536(3) References 537(2) Pharmaceuticals: Design and Development of Drug Delivery Systems 539(16) Jamshed Anwar Introduction 539(1) Significance of the Solid State in Pharmaceuticals and the Role of PXRD 540(1) Special Challenges 541(1) Characterization 542(2) Quantitative Phase Analysis 544(3) Crystallite Size and Quality 547(1) Ab Initio Structure Solution and Refinement 547(1) Real-Time Dynamic PXRD 548(3) Concluding Remarks 551(4) References 552(3) Chemicals Energy: By-Products of Coal Combustion in Power Plants 555(18) Gregory J. McCarthy Introduction 555(2) XRD Technical Procedures 557(1) Mineralogy of Coal Combustion By-Products 558(12) Conclusions 570(3) References 570(3) Lighting: Design and Development of Luminescent Materials 573(16) T. Justel H. Nikol C. Ronda Introduction 573(1) Principles and Instrumentation 573(1) Technical Procedures 574(1) Illustrative Examples, of the Use of XRD in Research Dealing with Luminescent Materials 574(12) Conclusions 586(3) References 586(3) Photography: Image Capture and Image Storage Materials 589(20) T. N. Blanton Introduction 589(1) Instrumentation 590(2) Procedures 592(5) Examples of Image Capture and Image Storage Materials Analysis Using XRD 597(9) The Role of XRD in Future Directions of the Photographic Industry 606(3) References 607(2) Detergents and Cleaners: Phase Analysis of Sodium Phosphates 609(12) T. F. Quail J. K. M. Chun Introduction 609(2) Principles and Instrumentation 611(1) Technical Procedures 612(1) Illustrative Examples 613(6) Conclusions 619(2) References 619(2) Museum: Art and Archaeology 621(38) Michael Mantler Manfred Schreiner Francois Schweizer Introduction 621(1) Significance of Analysis in Art and Archaeology 622(1) Analytical Techniques 623(12) Analysis of Materials in Artistic and Historic Objects 635(7) Identification of Technologies 642(5) Aging and Destruction of Artifacts 647(9) Is It a Fake? 656(3) References 656(3) Forensic Science: Every Contact Leaves a Trace 659(18) David F. Rendle Forensic Science 659(5) Instrumentation 664(1) Technical Procedures 665(5) Illustrative Examples of Forensic Casework 670(1) Summary 671(6) References 673(4) U.S. Customs Laboratories 677(10) Martin H. Liberman Introduction 677(2) Diffraction Instrumentation Used By Customs Laboratories 679(1) Technical Procedures 680(1) Illustrative Examples 681(3) Conclusions 684(1) References 685(2) Commercial Service Laboratory 687(18) W. N. Schreiner Commercial Service Laboratories 687(8) Laboratory Operation 695(10) III. Specialty Techniques Radiation Synchrotron Usage by Industry 705(28) Richard Harlow Uniqueness of Synchrotron X-Radiation for Powder Diffraction 705(10) General Considerations for a Synchrotron Powder Experiment 715(3) Examples 718(15) References 728(5) Electron Microscopy in Industry 733(18) Z. G. Li Introduction 733(3) Electron Diffraction of Micrometer and Nanometer-Size Crystals 736(10) Conclusions 746(5) References 747(4) Microstructures and Instrumentation Line Profiles and Sample Microstructure 751(26) J. Ian Langford Introduction 751(1) Characteristics of Diffraction Line Profiles 752(7) Sample Microstructure: Theoretical Considerations 759(8) Practical Examples 767(5) Summary of Procedure for Line-Profile Analysis 772(5) References 773(4) Thin Films and Multilayers 777(16) Paul F. Fewster Introduction 777(1) Principles and Instrumentation 778(4) Technical Procedures 782(1) Illustrative Examples 783(6) Conclusion 789(4) References 790(3) Residual Stress and Stress Gradients 793(20) Ivo Kraus Nikolaj Ganev Load and Residual Stresses 793(4) Macroscopic State of Stress of Crystal Lattice 797(4) Stress Measurement by Monochromatic X-Rays 801(6) Illustrative Examples of Industrial Applications 807(6) References 810(3) Residual Stress Development and Texture Formation During Rolling Contact Loading 813(34) Aat P. Voskamp Eric J. Mittemeijer Introduction: Rolling Contact Fatigue 813(6) Residual Stress Analysis 819(14) Texture Analysis 833(8) General Discussion 841(4) Conclusions 845(2) References 846(1) Warren--Averbach Applications 847(22) T. Ungar Introduction 847(2) Principles 849(5) The Dislocation Model of the Root-Mean-Squared Strains 854(4) Illustrative Examples 858(5) The Average Values of Dislocation Contrast Factors 863(1) Summary 864(5) References 865(4) Microbeam Crystallographic and Elemental Analysis 869(22) R. P. Goehner M. O. Eatough J. R. Michael R. G. Tissot Introduction to Microbeam Analysis 869(1) Microbeam X-Ray Diffraction 870(6) Diffraction in the Scanning Electron Microscope 876(6) Microbeam X-Ray Fluorescence 882(4) Comparison of Techniques 886(5) References 888(3) High-Temperature and Nonambient X-Ray Diffraction 891(12) Mark Rodriguez Introduction 891(4) Experimental 895(3) Examples 898(5) References 901(2) Diffraction Patterns NIST Standard Reference Materials for Characterization of Instrument Performance 903(16) James P. Cline Introduction 903(1) Parameters Defining Instrument Performance and NIST Reference Materials 903(4) Measurements and Analytical Procedures Adopted with NIST Standards 907(9) Conclusions 916(3) References 916(3) Grain Orientation and Texture 919(56) Hans J. Bunge Introduction 919(1) Definition of the Texture 919(4) Texture Determination 923(11) Texture in Materials Science and Technology 934(13) Generalized Textural Quantities 947(3) Particular Examples of Textures in Materials Technology 950(18) Other Applications of Texture Analysis 968(7) References 972(3) Structure Analysis from Powder Data 975(18) D. Louer Introduction 975(1) Origin of the Powder Diffraction Pattern 976(2) Data Collection 978(2) Total Pattern Modeling 980(2) Powder Pattern Indexing 982(3) Structure Analysis from Powder Data 985(2) Applications 987(6) References 990(3) Index 993

Frank Smith