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E-raamat: Instrumentation Reference Book

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  • Ilmumisaeg: 25-Nov-2009
  • Kirjastus: Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9780080941882
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  • Formaat: EPUB+DRM
  • Ilmumisaeg: 25-Nov-2009
  • Kirjastus: Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9780080941882
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The discipline of instrumentation has grown appreciably in recent years because of advances in sensor technology and in the interconnectivity of sensors, computers, and control systems. This fourth edition of the Instrumentation Reference Book embraces the equipment and systems used to detect, track, and store data related to physical, chemical, electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties of materials, systems, and operations. While traditionally a key area within mechanical and industrial engineering, understanding the sensing and monitoring of controls and systems is increasingly important across a wide variety of engineering areas-from manufacturing to chemical processing, aerospace operations, and automotive engineering.
The fourth edition ofthis classic reference work reflects these dramatic changes with improved and expanded coverage of both the traditional domains of instrumentation and the cutting edge digital integration of complex sensor/control systems whilst keeping with the same proven formula of practical advice for real-world applications from some ofthe world's leading authorities on instrumentation, control, and automation.

Instrumentation embraces the equipment and systems used to detect, track and store data related to physical, chemical, electrical, thermal and mechanical properties of materials, systems and operations. While traditionally a key area within mechanical and industrial engineering, it also has a strong presence in electrical, chemical, civil and environmental engineering, biomedical and aerospace engineering. The discipline of Instrumentation has grown appreciably in recent years because of advances in sensor technology and in the inter-connectivity of sensors, computers and control systems. In turn, this has meant that the automation of manufacturing, process industries, and even building and infrastructure construction has been improved dramatically. And now with remote wireless instrumentation, heretofore inaccessible or widely dispersed operations and procedures can be automatically monitored and controlled.

The new 4th edition of this already well-established reference work, will reflect these dramatic changes with improved and expanded coverage of the both the traditional domains of instrumentation as well as the cutting edge areas of digital integration of complex sensor/control systems.

Thoroughly revised, with up-to-date coverage of wireless sensors and systems, as well as nanotechnologies role in the evolution of sensor technology

Latest information on new sensor equipment, new measurement standards, and new software for embedded control systems, networking and automated control

Three entirely new sections on Controllers, Actuators and Final Control Elements; Manufacturing Execution Systems; and Automation Knowledge Base

Up-dated and expanded references and critical standards

Arvustused

"The book presents a huge range of techniques for measurement of mechanical and electrical properties, temperature, chemical composition, and radiation, and includes the theory and basic working knowledge required to apply the techniques. Process, automation, and instrumentation engineers, technicians, and anyone working in the instrumentation or automation fields will find this book a useful one-stop source covering a wide variety of measurement techniques." --IEEE Electrical Insulation

Muu info

Thoroughly revised, with up-to-date coverage of wireless sensors and systems, as well as nanotechnologies role in the evolution of sensor technology
Preface xvii
Contributors xix
Introduction xxi
Part I The Automation Knowledge Base
The Automation Practicum
W. Boyes
Introduction
3(1)
Job Descriptions
4(1)
Careers and Career Paths
4(9)
ISA Certified Automation Professional (CAP) Classification System
5(8)
Where Automation Fits in the Extended Enterprise
13(1)
Manufacturing Execution Systems and Manufacturing Operations Management
14(5)
Introduction
14(1)
Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES) and Manufacturing Operations Management (MOM)
15(1)
The Connected Enterprise
15(3)
Suggested Reading
18(1)
Basic Principles of Industrial Automation
W. Boyes
Introduction
19(1)
Standards
19(1)
Sensor and System Design, Installation, and Commissioning
20(1)
The Basics
20(1)
Identification of the Application
20(1)
Selection of the Appropriate Sensor/Transmitter
20(1)
Selection of the Final Control Element
20(1)
Selection of the Controller and Control Methodology
20(1)
Design of the Installation
20(1)
Installing, Commissioning, and Calibrating the System
21(1)
Maintenance and Operation
21(2)
Introduction
21(1)
Life-cycle Optimization
21(1)
Reliability Engineering
21(1)
Asset Management, Asset Optimization, and Plant Optimization
21(1)
Suggested Reading
21(2)
Measurement Methods and Control Strategies
W. Boyes
Introduction
23(1)
Measurement and Field Calibration Methodology
23(1)
Process Control Strategies
23(1)
Advanced Control Strategies
24(1)
Suggested Reading
24(1)
Simulation and Design Software
M. Berutti
Introduction
25(1)
Simulation
25(1)
Best Practices for Simulation Systems in Automation
25(1)
Ground-up Testing and Training
26(1)
Simulation System Selection
26(1)
Simulation for Automation in the Validated Industries
26(1)
Conclusion
26(1)
Security for Industrial Automation
W. Boyes
J. Weiss
The Security Problem
27(1)
An Analysis of the Security Needs of Industrial Automation
28(1)
Some Recommendations for Industrial Automation Security
28(3)
Part II Mechanical Measurements
Measurement of Flow
G. Fowles
W. H. Boyes
Introduction
31(1)
Basic Principles of Flow Measurement
31(5)
Streamlined and Turbulent Flow
31(1)
Viscosity
32(1)
Bernoulli's Theorem
33(1)
Practical Realization of Equations
34(1)
Modification of Flow Equations to Apply to Gases
35(1)
Fluid Flow in Closed Pipes
36(24)
Differential-Pressure Devices
36(7)
Rotating Mechanical Meters for Liquids
43(5)
Rotating Mechanical Meters for Gases
48(3)
Electronic Flowmeters
51(7)
Mass Flowmeters
58(2)
Flow in Open Channels
60(4)
Head/Area Method
60(3)
Velocity/Area Methods
63(1)
Dilution Gauging
64(1)
Point Velocity Measurement
64(2)
Laser Doppler Anemometer
64(1)
Hotwire Anemometer
64(1)
Pitot Tube
64(1)
Electromagnetic Velocity Probe
65(1)
Insertion Turbine
65(1)
Propeller-Type Current Meter
66(1)
Insertion Vortex
66(1)
Ultrasonic Doppler Velocity Probe
66(1)
Flowmeter Calibration Methods
66(3)
Flowmeter Calibration Methods for Liquids
66(1)
Flowmeter Calibration Methods for Gases
67(1)
References
68(1)
Further Reading
68(1)
Measurement of Viscosity
K. Walters
W. M. Jones
Introduction
69(1)
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Behavior
69(2)
Measurement of the Shear Viscosity
71(2)
Capillary Viscometer
71(1)
Couette Viscometer
72(1)
Cone-and-plate Viscometer
72(1)
Parallel-plate Viscometer
73(1)
Shop-Floor Viscometers
73(1)
Measurement of the Extensional Viscosity
74(1)
Measurement of Viscosity Under Extremes of Temperature and Pressure
74(1)
Online Measurements
74(1)
Accuracy and Range
74(3)
References
75(1)
Further Reading
75(2)
Measurement of Length
P. H. Sydenham
Introduction
77(1)
The Nature of Length
78(1)
Derived Measurements
79(1)
Derived from Length Measurement Alone
79(1)
Standards and Calibration of Length
80(1)
Practice of Length Measurement for Industrial Use
81(10)
General Remarks
81(1)
Mechanical Length-Measuring Equipment
81(1)
Electronic Length Measurement
82(5)
Use of Electromagnetic and Acoustic Radiation
87(3)
Miscellaneous Methods
90(1)
Automatic Gauging Systems
91(2)
References
92(1)
Further Reading
92(1)
Measurement of Strain
B. E. Noltingk
Strain
93(1)
Bonded Resistance Strain Gauges
93(2)
Wire Gauges
94(1)
Foil Gauges
94(1)
Semiconductor Gauges
94(1)
Rosettes
95(1)
Residual Stress Measurement
95(1)
Gauge Characteristics
95(1)
Range
95(1)
Cross-sensitivity
96(1)
Temperature Sensitivity
96(1)
Response Times
96(1)
Installation
96(2)
Circuits for Strain Gauges
98(1)
Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge
98(1)
Capacitive Strain Gauges
99(1)
Surveys of Whole Surfaces
99(1)
Brittle Lacquer
99(1)
Patterns on Surfaces
99(1)
Photoelasticity
100(3)
References
101(2)
Measurement of Level and Volume
P. H. Sydenham
W. Boyes
Introduction
103(1)
Practice of Level Measurement
103(3)
Installation
103(1)
Sources of Error
104(2)
Calibration of Level-Measuring Systems
106(1)
Methods Providing Full-Range Level Measurement
107(3)
Sight Gauges
107(1)
Float-driven Instruments
107(1)
Capacitance Probes
108(1)
Upthrust Buoyancy
109(1)
Pressure Sensing
109(1)
Microwave and Ultrasonic, Time-Transit Methods
109(1)
Force or Position Balance
110(1)
Methods Providing Short-Range Detection
110(3)
Magnetic
110(1)
Electrical Conductivity
110(1)
Infrared
111(1)
Radio Frequency
111(1)
Miscellaneous Methods
112(1)
References
112(1)
Vibration
P. H. Sydenham
Introduction
113(4)
Physical Considerations
113(3)
Practical Problems of Installation
116(1)
Areas of Application
116(1)
Amplitude Calibration
117(1)
Accelerometer Calibration
117(1)
Shock Calibration
117(1)
Force Calibration
117(1)
Sensor Practice
118(6)
Mass-Spring Seismic Sensors
118(2)
Displacement Measurement
120(1)
Velocity Measurement
120(1)
Acceleration Measurement
121(3)
Measurement of Shock
124(1)
Literature
124(3)
References
125(1)
Further Reading
125(2)
Measurement of Force
C. S. Bahra
J. Paros
Basic Concepts
127(1)
Force Measurement Methods
127(1)
Lever-Balance Methods
127(1)
Equal-lever Balance
127(1)
Unequal-lever Balance
128(1)
Compound lever Balance
128(1)
Force-Balance Methods
128(1)
Hydraulic Pressure Measurement
129(1)
Acceleration Measurement
129(1)
Elastic Elements
129(4)
Spring Balances
129(1)
Proving Rings
129(1)
Piezoelectric Transducers
130(1)
Strain-gauge Load Cells
130(3)
Further Developments
133(2)
References
133(2)
Measurement of Density
E. H. Higham
W. Boyes
General
135(1)
Measurement of Density Using Weight
135(1)
Measurement of Density Using Buoyancy
136(1)
Measurement of Density Using a Hydrostatic Head
137(3)
General Differential Pressure Transmitter Methods
137(1)
DP Transmitter with Overflow Tank
138(1)
DP Transmitter with a Wet Leg
138(1)
DP Transmitter with a Pressure Repeater
139(1)
DP Transmitter with Flanged or Extended Diaphragm
139(1)
DP Transmitter with Pressure Seals
139(1)
DP Transmitter with Bubble Tubes
139(1)
Other Process Considerations
140(1)
Measurement of Density Using Radiation
140(1)
Measurement of Density Using Resonant Elements
140(5)
Liquid Density Measurement
140(1)
Gas Density Measurements
141(2)
Relative Density of Gases
143(1)
Further Reading
143(2)
Measurement of Pressure
E. H. Higham
J. M. Paros
What is Pressure?
145(1)
Pressure Measurement
145(13)
Pressure Measurements by Balancing a Column of Liquid of Known Density
145(2)
Pressure Measurements by Allowing the Unknown Pressure to Act on a Known Area and Measuring the Resultant Force
147(2)
Pressure Measurement by Allowing the Unknown Pressure to Act on a Flexible Member and Measuring the Resultant Motion
149(6)
Pressure Measurement by Allowing the Unknown Pressure to Act on an Elastic Member and Measuring the Resultant Stress or Strain
155(3)
Pressure transmitters
158(7)
Pneumatic Motion-Balance Pressure Transmitters
159(1)
Pneumatic Force-Balance Pressure Transmitters
159(1)
Force-Measuring Pressure Transmitters
160(2)
Digital Pressure Transducers
162(1)
References
163(1)
Further Reading
163(2)
Measurement of Vacuum
D. J. Pacey
Introduction
165(1)
Systems of Measurement
165(1)
Methods of Measurement
165(1)
Choice of Nonabsolute Gauges
166(1)
Accuracy of Measurement
166(1)
Absolute Gauges
166(3)
Mechanical Gauges
166(1)
Liquid Manometers
167(1)
The McLeod Gauge (1878)
167(2)
Nonabsolute Gauges
169(6)
Thermal Conductivity Gauges
169(1)
Ionization Gauges
170(3)
References
173(2)
Particle Sizing
W. L. Snowsill
Introduction
175(1)
Characterization of Particles
175(1)
Statistical Mean Diameters
176(1)
Terminal Velocity
176(1)
Optical Effects Caused by Particles
177(1)
Particle Shape
177(1)
Methods for Characterizing a Group of Particles
178(2)
Gaussian or Normal Distributions
178(1)
Log-Normal Distributions
179(1)
Rosin-Rammler Distributions
180(1)
Analysis Methods that Measure Size Directly
180(3)
Sieving
180(1)
Microscope Counting
181(2)
Direct Optical Methods
183(1)
Analysis Methods that Measure Terminal Velocity
183(5)
Sedimentation
183(4)
Elutriation
187(1)
Impaction
188(1)
Analysis Methods that Infer Size from Some Other Property
188(3)
Coulter Counter
188(1)
Hiac Automatic Particle Sizer
188(1)
Climet
189(1)
Adsorption Methods
189(1)
References
189(1)
Further Reading
189(2)
Fiber Optics in Sensor Instrumentation
B. T. Meggitt
Introduction
191(1)
Principles of Optical Fiber Sensing
192(1)
Sensor Classification
192(1)
Modulation Parameters
192(1)
Performance Criteria
193(1)
Interferometric Sensing Approach
193(9)
Heterodyne Interferometry
194(1)
Pseudoheterodyne Interferometry
194(1)
White-Light Interferometry
195(6)
Central Fringe Identification
201(1)
Doppler Anemometry
202(8)
Introduction
202(1)
Particle Size
203(1)
Fluid Flow
204(2)
Vibration Monitoring
206(4)
In-Fiber Sensing Structures
210(7)
Introduction
210(1)
Fiber Fabry-Perot Sensing Element
210(2)
Fiber Bragg Grating Sensing Element
212(3)
References
215(2)
Nanotechnology for Sensors
W. Boyes
Introduction
217(1)
What is Nanotechnology?
217(1)
Nanotechnology for Pressure Transmitters
217(1)
Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS)
217(1)
MEMS Sensors Today
218(1)
Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent Transmitters
E. H. Higham
J. Berge
Introduction
219(1)
Terminology
220(1)
Background Information
221(1)
Attributes and Features of Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent Transmitters
222(2)
Microprocessor-Based Features
222(1)
Intelligent Features
223(1)
Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent Temperature Transmitters
224(2)
Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent Pressure and Differential Transmitters
226(3)
Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent Flowmeters
229(7)
Coriolis Mass Flowmeters
229(4)
Electromagnetic Flowmeters
233(1)
Vortex Flowmeters
234(2)
Other Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent Transmitters
236(4)
Density Transmitters
236(3)
Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent Liquid Level Measurement Systems
239(1)
Other Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent Measurement Systems
240(1)
Fieldbus
241(5)
Background
241(1)
Introduction to the Concept of a Fieldbus
241(1)
Current Digital Multiplexing Technology
241(2)
The HART Protocol
243(3)
User Experience with Microprocessor-Based and Intelligent Transmitters
246(1)
Fieldbus Function and Benefits
247(6)
Foundation Fieldbus and Profibus-PA
247(1)
Field-Mounted Control
248(1)
Future of Analog Instruments
249(1)
Sensor Validation
249(1)
Plant Diagnostics
249(1)
Handheld Interfaces (Handheld Terminals or Handheld Communicators)
249(1)
Measuring Directives
250(1)
Further Developments of Intelligent Transmitters
250(1)
Integration of Intelligent Transmitters into Instrument Management Systems
250(1)
References
251(2)
Industrial Wireless Technology and Planning
D. R. Kaufman
Introduction
253(1)
The History of Wireless
253(1)
The Basics
254(9)
Radio Frequency Signals
254(1)
Radio Bands
254(1)
Radio Noise
255(1)
Radio Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
255(1)
Wireless Reliability
256(1)
Fixed Frequencies
256(1)
Spread Spectrum
256(1)
Security
257(1)
Antennas
258(2)
Antenna Connection
260(1)
Commissioning
261(1)
Mesh Technologies
262(1)
System Management
262(1)
System Interfaces
262(1)
Standards and Specifications
263(1)
Planning for Wireless
263(6)
Imagine the Possibilities
264(1)
Getting Ready for Wireless
264(1)
References
265(4)
Part III Measurement of Temperature and Chemical Composition
Temperature Measurement
C. Hagart-Alexander
Temperature and Heat
269(3)
Application Considerations
269(1)
Definitions
269(2)
Radiation
271(1)
Temperature Scales
272(2)
Celsius Temperature Scale
272(1)
Kelvin, Absolute, or Thermodynamic Temperature Scale
272(1)
International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68)
273(1)
Fahrenheit and Rankine Scales
273(1)
Realization of Temperature Measurement
274(1)
Measurement Techniques: Direct Effects
274(12)
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
274(4)
Liquid-Filled Dial Thermometers
278(3)
Gas-Filled instruments
281(1)
Vapor Pressure Thermometers
282(3)
Solid Expansion
285(1)
Measurement Techniques: Electrical
286(7)
Resistance Thermometers
286(4)
Thermistors
290(1)
Semiconductor Temperature Measurement
291(2)
Measurement Techniques: Thermocouples
293(13)
Thermoelectric Effects
293(6)
Thermocouple Materials
299(2)
Thermocouple Construction
301(5)
Measurement Techniques: Radiation Thermometers
306(13)
Introduction
306(1)
Radiation Thermometer Types
307(12)
Temperature Measurement Considerations
319(8)
Readout
319(1)
Sensor Location Considerations
320(4)
Miscellaneous Measurement Techniques
324(2)
References
326(1)
Further Reading
326(1)
Chemical Analysis: Introduction
W. G. Cummings
I. Verhappen
Introduction to Chemical Analysis
327(1)
Chromatography
328(3)
General Chromatography
328(1)
Paper Chromatography and Thin-Layer Chromatography
328(3)
Polarography and Anodic Stripping Voltammetry
331(4)
Polarography
331(3)
Anodic Stripping Voltammetry
334(1)
Thermal Analysis
335(6)
Further Reading
339(2)
Chemical Analysis: Spectroscopy
A. C. Smith
I. Verhappen
Introduction
341(1)
Absorption and Reflection Techniques
341(8)
Infrared
341(5)
Absorption in UV, Visible, and IR
346(2)
Absorption in the Visible and Ultraviolet
348(1)
Measurements Based on Reflected Radiation
348(1)
Chemiluminescence
349(1)
Atomic Techniques: Emission, Absorption, and Fluorescence
349(4)
Atomic Emission Spectroscopy
349(2)
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
351(1)
Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy
352(1)
X-Ray Spectroscopy
353(2)
X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy
353(2)
X-ray Diffraction
355(1)
Photo-Acoustic Spectroscopy
355(1)
Microwave Spectroscopy
355(2)
Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR)
356(1)
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
357(1)
Neutron Activation
357(1)
Mass Spectrometers
357(6)
Principle of the Classical Instrument
358(1)
Inlet Systems
359(1)
Ion Sources
359(1)
Separation of the Ions
359(2)
Other Methods of Separation of Ions
361(1)
References
362(1)
Further Reading
362(1)
Chemical Analysis: Electrochemical Techniques
W. G. Cummings
K. Torrance
I. Verhappen
Acids and Alkalis
363(1)
Ionization of Water
364(1)
Electrical Conductivity
364(11)
Electrical Conduction in Liquids
364(1)
Conductivity of Solutions
365(1)
Practical Measurement of Electrical Conductivity
365(7)
Applications of Conductivity Measurement
372(3)
The Concept of pH
375(3)
General Theory
375(1)
Practical Specification of a pH Scale
376(1)
pH Standards
376(1)
Neutralization
376(1)
Hydrolysis
376(2)
Common Ion Effect
378(1)
Buffer Solutions
378(1)
Electrode Potentials
378(2)
General Theory
378(2)
Variation of Electrode Potential with Ion Activity (The Nernst Equation)
380(1)
Ion-Selective Electrodes
380(2)
Glass Electrodes
381(1)
Solid-State Electrodes
381(1)
Heterogeneous Membrane Electrodes
381(1)
Liquid Ion Exchange Electrodes
381(1)
Gas-Sensing Membrane Electrodes
381(1)
Redox Electrodes
382(1)
Potentiometry and Specific Ion Measurement
382(11)
Reference Electrodes
382(2)
Measurement of pH
384(6)
Measurement of Redox Potential
390(1)
Determination of Ions by Ion-Selective Electrodes
390(3)
Common Electrochemical Analyzers
393(8)
Residual Chlorine Analyzer
393(2)
Polarographic Process Oxygen Analyzer
395(1)
High-temperature Ceramic Sensor Oxygen Probes
396(1)
Fuel Cell Oxygen-measuring Instruments
397(1)
Hersch Cell for Oxygen Measurement
397(1)
Sensor for Oxygen Dissolved in Water
397(2)
Coulometric Measurement of Moisture in Gases and Liquids
399(1)
Further Reading
399(2)
Chemical Analysis: Gas Analysis
C. K. Laird
I. Verhappen
Introduction
401(1)
Separation of Gaseous Mixtures
402(2)
Gas Chromatography
402(2)
Detectors
404(8)
Thermal Conductivity Detector (TCD)
404(2)
Flame Ionization Detector (FID)
406(1)
Photo-Ionization Detector (PID)
407(1)
Helium Ionization Detector
408(1)
Electron Capture Detector
409(1)
Flame Photometric Detector (FPD)
409(1)
Ultrasonic Detector
410(1)
Catalytic Detector (Pellistor)
411(1)
Semiconductor Detector
411(1)
Properties and Applications of Gas Detectors
412(1)
Process Chromatography
412(9)
Sampling System
414(2)
Carrier Gas
416(1)
Chromatographic Column
417(1)
Controlled Temperature Enclosures
417(1)
Detectors
417(1)
Programmers
418(1)
Data-Processing Systems
418(1)
Operation of a Typical Process Chromatograph
419(2)
Special Gas Analyzers
421(5)
Paramagnetic Oxygen Analyzers
421(3)
Ozone Analyzer
424(1)
Oxides of Nitrogen Analyzer
425(1)
Summary of Special Gas Analyzers
426(1)
Calibration of Gas Analyzers
426(3)
Static Methods
427(1)
Dynamic Methods
427(1)
Further Reading
428(1)
Chemical Analysis: Moisture Measurement
D. B. Meadowcroft
I. Verhappen
Introduction
429(1)
Definitions
429(2)
Gases
429(1)
Liquids and Solids
430(1)
Measurement Techniques
431(4)
Gases
431(2)
Liquids
433(1)
Solids
434(1)
Calibration
435(4)
Gases
435(1)
Liquids
436(1)
Solids
436(1)
References
436(3)
Part IV Electrical and Radiation Measurements
Electrical Measurements
M. L. Sanderson
Units and Standards of Electrical Measurement
439(5)
SI Electrical Units
439(1)
Realization of the SI Base Unit
439(1)
National Primary Standards
440(4)
Measurement of DC and AC current and Voltage Using Indicating Instruments
444(11)
Permanent Magnet-Moving Coil Instruments
445(3)
Moving-Iron Instruments
448(4)
AC Range Extension Using Current and Voltage Transformers
452(2)
Dynamometer Instruments
454(1)
Thermocouple Instruments
454(1)
Electrostatic Instruments
455(1)
Digital Voltmeters and Digital Multimeters
455(10)
Analog-to-Digital Conversion Techniques
456(4)
Elements in DVMs and DMMs
460(4)
DVM and DMM Specifications
464(1)
Power Measurement
465(7)
The Three-Voltmeter Method of Power Measurement
465(1)
Direct-Indicating Analog Wattmeters
465(2)
Connection of Wattmeters
467(1)
Three-Phase Power Measurement
468(1)
Electronic Wattmeters
469(1)
High-Frequency Power Measurement
470(2)
Measurement of Electrical Energy
472(1)
Power-Factor Measurement
473(1)
The Measurement of Resistance, Capacitance, and Inductance
474(15)
DC Bridge Measurements
474(3)
AC Equivalent Circuits of Resistors, Capacitors, and Inductors
477(1)
Four-Arm AC Bridge Measurements
478(4)
Transformer Ratio Bridges
482(5)
High-Frequency Impedance Measurement
487(2)
Digital Frequency and Period/Time-Interval Measurement
489(8)
Frequency Counters and Universal Timer/Counters
489(3)
Time-Interval Averaging
492(3)
Microwave-Frequency Measurement
495(2)
Frequency and Phase Measurement Using an Oscilloscope
497(2)
References
497(1)
Further Reading
498(1)
Optical Measurements
A. W. S. Tarrant
Introduction
499(1)
Light Sources
499(3)
Incandescent Lamps
500(1)
Discharge Lamps
500(1)
Electronic Sources: Light-emitting Diodes
501(1)
Lasers
501(1)
Detectors
502(4)
Photomultipliers
502(1)
Photovoltaic and Photoconductive Detectors (Photodiodes)
503(1)
Pyroelectric Detectors
504(1)
Array Detectors
505(1)
Detector Techniques
506(2)
Detector Circuit Time Constants
506(1)
Detector Cooling
506(1)
Beam Chopping and Phase-Sensitive Detection
507(1)
The Boxcar Detector
507(1)
Photon Counting
508(1)
Intensity Measurement
508(2)
Photometers
509(1)
Ultraviolet Intensity Measurements
509(1)
Color-Temperature Meters
510(1)
Wavelength and Color
510(4)
Spectrophotometers
510(2)
Spectroradiometers
512(1)
The Measurement of Color
512(2)
Measurement of Optical Properties
514(4)
Refractometers
514(2)
Polarimeters
516(2)
Thermal Imaging Techniques
518(3)
References
519(2)
Nuclear Instrumentation Technology
D. Aliaga Kelly
W. Boyes
Introduction
521(5)
Statistics of Counting
521(3)
Classification of Detectors
524(1)
Health and Safety
525(1)
Detectors
526(15)
Gas Detectors
526(2)
Scintillation Detectors
528(4)
Solid-state Detectors
532(1)
Detector Applications
533(8)
Electronics
541(8)
Electronics Assemblies
541(1)
Power Supplies
542(1)
Amplifiers
543(1)
Sealers
543(1)
Pulse-Height Analyzers
543(1)
Special Electronic Units
544(3)
References
547(1)
Further Reading
547(2)
Measurements Employing Nuclear Techniques
D. Aliaga Kelly
W. Boyes
Introduction
549(3)
Radioactive Measurement Relations
550(1)
Optimum Time of Measurement
551(1)
Accuracy/Precision of Measurements
551(1)
Measurements on Fluids in Containers
551(1)
Materials Analysis
552(7)
Activation Analysis
552(1)
X-ray Fluorescence Analysis
553(2)
Moisture Measurement: By Neutrons
555(2)
Measurement of Sulfur Contents of Liquid Hydrocarbons
557(1)
The Radioisotope Calcium Monitor
558(1)
Wear and Abrasion
559(1)
Leak Detection
559(1)
Mechanical Measurements
559(4)
Level Measurement
559(1)
Measurement of Flow
560(1)
Mass and Thickness
561(2)
Miscellaneous Measurements
563(4)
Field-survey Instruments
563(1)
Dating of Archaeological or Geological Specimens
563(2)
Static Elimination
565(1)
References
565(2)
Non-Destructive Testing
Introduction
567(1)
Visual Examination
568(1)
Surface-Inspection Methods
568(3)
Visual Techniques
568(1)
Magnetic Flux Methods
569(1)
Potential Drop Techniques
570(1)
Eddy-Current Testing
570(1)
Ultrasonics
571(9)
General Principles of Ultrasonics
571(3)
The Ultrasonic Test Equipment Controls and Visual Presentation
574(2)
Probe Construction
576(1)
Ultrasonic Spectroscopy Techniques
577(1)
Applications of Ultrasonic Spectroscopy
578(1)
Other Ways of Presenting Information from Ultrasonics
579(1)
Automated Ultrasonic Testing
580(1)
Acoustic Emission
580(1)
Radiography
580(6)
Gamma Rays
581(1)
X-rays
582(1)
Sensitivity and IQI
582(3)
Xerography
585(1)
Fluoroscopic and Image-Intensification Methods
585(1)
Underwater Non-Destructive Testing
586(4)
Diver Operations and Communication
587(1)
Visual Examination
587(1)
Photography
587(1)
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
588(1)
Ultrasonics
588(1)
Corrosion Protection
588(1)
Other Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
589(1)
Developments
590(1)
Certification of Personnel
590(3)
References
591(1)
Further Reading
592(1)
Noise Measurement
J. Kuehn
Sound and Sound Fields
593(3)
The Nature of Sound
593(1)
Quantities Characterizing a Sound Source or Sound Field
594(1)
Velocity of Propagation of Soundwaves
594(1)
Selecting the Quantities of Interest
595(1)
Instrumentation for the Measurement of Sound-Pressure Level
596(8)
Microphones
596(1)
Appendix 32.1
597(3)
Frequency Weighting Networks and Filters
600(1)
Sound-Level Meters
601(2)
Noise-Exposure Meters/Noise-Dose Meters
603(1)
Acoustic Calibrators
603(1)
Frequency Analyzers
604(3)
Octave Band Analyzers
604(1)
Third-Octave Analyzers
605(1)
Narrow-Band Analyzers
606(1)
Fast Fourier Transform Analyzers
607(1)
Recorders
607(1)
Level Recorders
607(1)
XY Plotters
607(1)
Digital Transient Recorders
607(1)
Tape Recorders
608(1)
Sound-Intensity Analyzers
608(1)
Calibration of Measuring Instruments
609(1)
Formal Calibration
609(1)
Field Calibration
609(1)
System Calibration
609(1)
Field-System Calibration
609(1)
The Measurement of Sound-Pressure Level and Sound Level
609(4)
Time Averaging
610(1)
Long Time Averaging
611(1)
Statistical Distribution and Percentiles
611(1)
Space Averaging
611(1)
Determination of Sound Power
611(1)
Measurement of Sound Power by Means of Sound Intensity
612(1)
Effect of Environmental Conditions on Measurements
613(4)
Temperature
613(1)
Humidity and Rain
613(1)
Wind
613(1)
Other Noises
613(1)
References
614(1)
Further Reading
614(3)
Part V Controllers, Actuators, and Final Control Elements
Field Controllers, Hardware and Software
W. Boyes
Introduction
617(1)
Field Controllers, Hardware, and Software
617(2)
Advanced Control for the Plant Floor
James R. Ford, P. E.
Introduction
619(1)
Early Developments
619(1)
The Need for Process Control
619(1)
Unmeasured Disturbances
620(1)
Automatic Control Valves
620(1)
Types of Feedback Control
621(1)
Measured Disturbances
621(2)
The Need for Models
623(1)
The Emergence of MPC
623(1)
MPC vs. ARC
623(1)
Hierarchy
624(1)
Other Problems with MPC
625(1)
Where We Are Today
626(1)
Recommendations for Using MPC
626(1)
What's in Store for the Next 40 Years?
627(2)
Batch Process Control
W. H. Boyes
Introduction
629(2)
Further Reading
630(1)
Applying Control Valves
B. G. Liptak
W. H. Boyes
Introduction
631(1)
Valve Types and Characteristics
631(2)
Distortion of Valve Characteristics
633(1)
Rangeability
634(1)
Loop Tuning
634(1)
Positioning Positioners
635(1)
Smarter Smart Valves
635(1)
Valves Serve as Flowmeters
635(4)
Further Reading
636(3)
Part VI Automation and Control Systems
Design and Construction of Instruments
C. I. Daykin
W. H. Boyes
Introduction
639(1)
Instrument Design
639(1)
The Designer's Viewpoint
639(1)
Marketing
640(1)
Special Instruments
640(1)
Elements of Construction
640(7)
Electronic Components and Printed Circuits
640(2)
Surface-Mounted Assemblies
642(1)
Interconnections
642(1)
Materials
643(1)
Mechanical Manufacturing Processes
644(2)
Functional Components
646(1)
Construction of Electronic Instruments
647(3)
Site Mounting
647(1)
Panel Mounting
647(1)
Bench-Mounting Instruments
647(2)
Rack-Mounting Instruments
649(1)
Portable Instruments
649(1)
Encapsulation
650(1)
Mechanical Instruments
650(5)
Kinematic Design
650(1)
Proximity Transducer
651(1)
Load Cell
651(1)
Combined Actuator Transducer
652(1)
References
653(2)
Instrument Installation and Commissioning
A. Danielsson
Introduction
655(1)
General Requirements
655(1)
Storage and Protection
655(1)
Mounting and Accessibility
655(1)
Piping Systems
656(1)
Air Supplies
656(1)
Pneumatic Signals
656(1)
Impulse Lines
656(1)
Cabling
657(1)
General Requirements
657(1)
Cable Types
658(1)
Cable Segregation
658(1)
Grounding
658(1)
General Requirements
658(1)
Testing and Pre-Commissioning
658(2)
General
658(1)
Pre-Installation Testing
658(1)
Piping and Cable Testing
659(1)
Loop Testing
659(1)
Plant Commissioning
660(1)
References
660(1)
Sampling
J. G. Giles
Introduction
661(3)
Importance of Sampling
661(1)
Representative Sample
661(1)
Parts of Analysis Equipment
662(1)
Time Lags
662(1)
Construction Materials
663(1)
Sample System Components
664(8)
Probes
664(1)
Filters
665(1)
Coalescers
666(1)
Coolers
666(1)
Pumps, Gas
666(2)
Pumps, Liquid
668(1)
Flow Measurement and Indication
669(1)
Pressure Reduction and Vaporization
670(1)
Sample Lines, Tube and Pipe Fitting
670(2)
Typical Sample Systems
672(5)
Gases
672(2)
Liquids
674(2)
References
676(1)
Telemetry
M. L. Sanderson
Introduction
677(2)
Communication Channels
679(5)
Transmission Lines
679(2)
Radio Frequency Transmission
681(1)
Fiber-Optic Communication
681(3)
Signal Multiplexing
684(1)
Pulse Encoding
685(2)
Carrier Wave Modulation
687(1)
Error Detection and Correction Codes
688(1)
Direct Analog Signal Transmission
689(1)
Frequency Transmission
690(1)
Digital Signal Transmission
690(9)
Modems
692(1)
Data Transmission and Interfacing Standards
693(4)
References
697(1)
Further Reading
697(2)
Display and Recording
M. L. Sanderson
Introduction
699(1)
Indicating Devices
699(1)
Light-Emitting Diodes (LCDs)
700(2)
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs)
702(1)
Plasma Displays
703(1)
Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs)
704(5)
Color Displays
705(1)
Oscilloscopes
706(1)
Storage Oscilloscopes
707(1)
Sampling Oscilloscopes
708(1)
Digitizing Oscilloscopes
708(1)
Visual Display Units (VDUs)
709(1)
Graphical Displays
709(1)
Graphical Recorders
709(3)
Strip Chart Recorders
710(1)
Circular Chart Recorders
711(1)
Galvanometer Recorders
711(1)
X-Y Recorders
712(1)
Magnetic Recording
712(1)
Transient/Waveform Recorders
713(1)
Data Loggers
713(2)
References
714(1)
Pneumatic Instrumentation
E. H. Higham
W. L. Mostia Jr.
Basic Characteristics
715(1)
Pneumatic Measurement and Control Systems
716(1)
Principal Measurements
717(5)
Introduction
717(1)
Temperature
717(1)
Pressure Measurement
718(3)
Level Measurements
721(1)
Buoyancy Measurements
721(1)
Target Flow Transmitter
721(1)
Speed
722(1)
Pneumatic Transmission
722(1)
Pneumatic Controllers
723(6)
Motion-Balance Controllers
723(2)
Force-Balance Controllers
725(4)
Signal Conditioning
729(3)
Integrators
729(1)
Analog Square Root Extractor
729(1)
Pneumatic Summing Unit and Dynamic Compensator
729(1)
Pneumatic-to-Current Converters
730(2)
Electropneumatic Interface
732(5)
Diaphragm Motor Actuators
732(1)
Pneumatic Valve Positioner
733(1)
Electropneumatic Converters
734(1)
Electropneumatic Positioners
735(1)
References
735(2)
Reliability in Instrumentation and Control
J. Cluley
Reliability Principles and Terminology
737(5)
Definition of Reliability
737(1)
Reliability and MTBF
737(1)
The Exponential Failure Law
738(1)
Availability
739(1)
Choosing Optimum Reliability
739(1)
Compound Systems
740(2)
Reliability Assessment
742(7)
Component Failure Rates
742(1)
Variation of Failure Rate with Time
742(1)
Failure Modes
743(1)
The Effect of Temperature on Failure Rates
743(1)
Estimating Component Temperature
744(1)
The Effect of Operating Voltage on Failure Rates
745(1)
Accelerated Life Tests
745(1)
Component Screening
746(1)
Confidence Limits and Confidence Level
746(1)
Assembly Screening
746(1)
Dealing with the Wear-out Phase
747(1)
Estimating System Failure Rate
747(1)
Parallel Systems
748(1)
Environmental Testing
748(1)
System Design
749(6)
Signal Coding
749(1)
Digitally Coded Systems
750(1)
Performance Margins in System Design
750(1)
Coping with Tolerance
751(1)
Component Tolerances
751(1)
Temperature Effects
752(1)
Design Automation
753(1)
Built-in Test Equipment
754(1)
Sneak Circuits
754(1)
Building High-Reliability Systems
755(5)
Reliability Budgets
755(1)
Component Selection
755(1)
The Use of Redundancy
756(1)
Redundancy with Majority Voting
757(1)
The Level of Redundancy
758(1)
Analog Redundancy
758(1)
Common Mode Faults
759(1)
The Human Operator in Control and Instrumentation
760(5)
The Scope for Automation
760(1)
Features of the Human Operator
760(2)
User-Friendly Design
762(2)
Visual Displays
764(1)
Safety Procedures
764(1)
Safety Monitoring
765(3)
Types of Failure
765(1)
Designing Fail-Safe Systems
765(1)
Relay Tripping Circuits
766(1)
Mechanical Fail-Safe Devices
766(1)
Control System Faults
767(1)
Circuit Fault Analysis
767(1)
Software Reliability
768(3)
Comparison with Hardware Reliability
768(1)
The Distinction between Faults and Failures
769(1)
Typical Failure Intensities
769(1)
High-Reliability Software
769(1)
Estimating the Number of Faults
769(1)
Structured Programming
770(1)
Failure-Tolerant Systems
771(1)
Electronic and Avionic Systems
771(5)
Radio Transmitters
771(1)
Satellite Links
772(1)
Aircraft Control Systems
772(2)
Railway Signaling and Control
774(1)
Robotic Systems
775(1)
Nuclear Reactor Control Systems
776(6)
Requirements for Reactor Control
776(1)
Principles of Reactor Control
776(3)
Types of Failure
779(1)
Common Mode Faults
779(2)
Reactor Protection Logic
781(1)
Process and Plant Control
782(7)
Additional Hazards in Chemical Plants
782(1)
Hazardous Areas
782(1)
Risks to Life
783(1)
The Oil Industry
783(1)
Reliability of Oil Supply
784(1)
Electrostatic Hazards
785(1)
The Use of Redundancy
786(1)
References
786(1)
British Standards
787(1)
British Standard Codes of Practice
787(1)
European and Harmonized Standards
787(2)
Safety
L. C. Towle
Introduction
789(1)
Electrocution Risk
790(1)
Earthing (Grounding) and Bonding
791(1)
Flammable Atmospheres
791(4)
Other Safety Aspects
795(1)
Conclusion
796(1)
References
796(1)
Further Reading
796(1)
EMC
T. Williams
Introduction
797(4)
Compatibility between Systems
797(1)
The Scope of EMC
798(3)
Interference Coupling Mechanisms
801(13)
Source and Victim
801(4)
Emissions
805(3)
Susceptibility
808(6)
Circuits, Layout, and Grounding
814(27)
Layout and Grounding
815(9)
Digital and Analog Circuit Design
824(17)
Interfaces, Filtering, and Shielding
841(24)
Cables and Connectors
841(7)
Filtering
848(10)
Shielding
858(7)
The Regulatory Framework
865(8)
Customer Requirements
865(1)
The EMC Directive
865(4)
Standards Relating to the EMC Directive
869(1)
References
870(1)
Further Reading
871(2)
Appendices
A. General Instrumentation Books
873(6)
B. Professional Societies and Associations
879(4)
C. The Institute of Measurement and Control
883(4)
Role and Objectives
883(1)
History
883(1)
Qualifications
884(1)
Chartered Status for Individuals
884(1)
Incorporated Engineers and Engineering Technicians
884(1)
Membership
884(1)
Corporate Members
884(1)
Honorary Fellow
884(1)
Fellows
884(1)
Members
884(1)
Noncorporate Members
885(1)
Companions
885(1)
Graduates
885(1)
Licentiates
885(1)
Associates
885(1)
Students
885(1)
Affiliates
885(1)
Subscribers
885(1)
Application for Membership
885(1)
National and International Technical Events
885(1)
Local Sections
885(1)
Publications
885(1)
Advice and Information
886(1)
Awards and Prizes
886(1)
Government and Administration
886(1)
D. International Society of Automation, Formerly Instrument Society of America
887(2)
Training
887(1)
Standards and Practices
887(1)
Publications
888(1)
Index 889
Walt Boyes serves as Director of Electronic Publications for ISA, the International Society for Measurement and Control and as Vice President of the Seattle Section, ISAas EPubs Director, he is responsible for overseeing of ISA Online, the online presence of the society, as well as all other electronic publishing endeavors of the Society. He also provides consulting services in the fields of sales management, marketing, and new product development through MP Consultants