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E-raamat: Laser Ignition of Energetic Materials

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, (Cranfield University)
  • Formaat: PDF+DRM
  • Ilmumisaeg: 25-Aug-2014
  • Kirjastus: John Wiley & Sons Inc
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781118683491
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Laser Ignition of Energetic MaterialsSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: PDF+DRM
  • Ilmumisaeg: 25-Aug-2014
  • Kirjastus: John Wiley & Sons Inc
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781118683491
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The book gives an introduction to energetic materials and lasers, properties of such materials and the current methods for initiating energetic materials. The following chapters and sections highlight the properties of lasers, and safety aspects of their application. It covers the properties of in-service energetic materials, and also materials with prospects of being used as insensitive ammunitions in future weapon or missiles systems or as detonators in civilian (mining) applications. Because of the diversity of the topics some sections will naturally separate into different levels of expertise and knowledge.
About the Authors xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgements xvii
1 Historical Background 1(16)
1.1 Introduction
1(1)
1.2 The Gunpowder Era
2(1)
1.3 Cannons, Muskets and Rockets
2(7)
1.3.1 Musketry
7(2)
1.3.2 Rocketry
9(1)
1.4 Explosive Warheads
9(2)
1.5 Explosives Science
11(3)
Bibliography
14(3)
2 Review of Laser Initiation 17(18)
2.1 Introduction
17(2)
2.2 Initiation Processes
19(2)
2.3 Initiation by Direct Laser Irradiation
21(4)
2.3.1 Laser Power
21(1)
2.3.2 Laser Pulse Duration
22(1)
2.3.3 Absorbing Centres
22(1)
2.3.4 Pressed Density
23(1)
2.3.5 Strength of Confining Container
24(1)
2.3.6 Material Ageing
25(1)
2.3.7 Laser-Induced Electrical Response
25(1)
2.4 Laser-Driven Flyer Plate Initiations
25(2)
2.5 Summary and Research Rationale
27(2)
2.5.1 Rationale for Research
28(1)
Bibliography
29(1)
References
29(6)
3 Lasers and Their Characteristics 35(26)
3.1 Definition of Laser
35(1)
3.2 Concept of Light
36(3)
3.3 Parameters Characterizing Light Sources
39(6)
3.4 Basic Principle of Lasers
45(2)
3.5 Basic Technology of Lasers
47(1)
3.6 Comparison between Laser and Thermal Sources
48(1)
3.7 Suitable Laser Sources for Ignition Applications
49(4)
3.7.1 Nd:YAG Laser
50(1)
3.7.2 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
50(2)
3.7.3 Diode Lasers
52(1)
3.8 Beam Delivery Methods for Laser Ignition
53(4)
3.8.1 Free Space Delivery
53(1)
3.8.2 Fibre Optics Beam Delivery
54(3)
3.9 Laser Safety
57(2)
3.9.1 Laser Interaction with Biological Tissues
57(1)
3.9.2 Precaution against Ocular Hazards
57(2)
Bibliography
59(2)
4 General Characteristics of Energetic Materials 61(30)
4.1 Introduction
61(1)
4.2 The Nature of Explosions
61(2)
4.3 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Explosives
63(1)
4.4 Fuel and Oxidizer Concept
64(10)
4.4.1 Explosive Mixtures
66(3)
4.4.2 Pyrotechnics
69(4)
4.4.3 Rocket Propellants
73(1)
4.5 Explosive Compounds
74(6)
4.5.1 Chemical Classification
74(6)
4.6 Thermodynamics of Explosions
80(3)
4.6.1 Oxygen Balance
82(1)
Appendix 4.A
83(6)
A.1 Data for Some Explosives
83(5)
A.1.1 TNT (Trinitrotoluene)
83(1)
A.1.2 HNS (Hexanitrostilbene)
83(1)
A.1.3 DATB (1,3,Diamino,2,4,6,trinitrobenzene)
84(1)
A.1.4 TATB (1,3,5,-Triamino-2,4,6-Trinitrobenzene)
84(1)
A.1.5 Picric Acid (2,4,6,trinito- hydroxy benzene)
84(1)
A.1.6 Styphnic Acid (2,4,6,trinito-1,3, dihydroxy benzene)
84(1)
A.1.7 Tetryl or CE (Composition Exploding)
85(1)
A.1.8 PICRITE (Niroguanidine)
85(1)
A.1.9 RDX (Research Department eXplosive)
85(1)
A.1.10 HMX (High Molecular-weight eXplosive)
85(1)
A.1.11 EGDN (Nitroglycol)
86(1)
A.1.12 NG (Nitroglycerine)
86(1)
A.1.13 NC (Nitro-Cellulose)
86(1)
A.1.14 PETN (Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate)
87(1)
A.1.15 Metal Salts
87(1)
A.2 Unusual Explosives
88(3)
A.2.1 Tetrazene
88(1)
Bibliography
89(2)
5 Recent Developments in Explosives 91(26)
5.1 Introduction
91(1)
5.2 Improvements in Explosive Performance
91(1)
5.2.1 Heat of Explosion Al (Q)
91(1)
5.2.2 Density of Explosives
92(1)
5.3 Areas under Development
92(3)
5.3.1 New Requirements for Explosive Compositions
93(2)
5.4 Plastic-Bonded High Explosives
95(2)
5.4.1 Plastic-Bonded Compositions
95(1)
5.4.2 Thermoplastics
96(1)
5.4.3 Thermosetting Materials
96(1)
5.5 Choice of High Explosive for Plastic Bonded Compositions
97(1)
5.6 High-Energy Plastic Matrices
97(2)
5.7 Reduced Sensitivity Explosives
99(2)
5.8 High Positive Enthalpies of Formation Explosives
101(12)
5.8.1 High Nitrogen-Containing Molecules
102(1)
5.8.2 Pure Nitrogen Compounds
102(2)
5.8.3 Other High-Nitrogen Compounds
104(1)
5.8.4 Nitrogen Heterocycles
105(8)
Glossary of Chemical Names for High-Melting-Point Explosives
113(1)
Bibliography
113(1)
References
113(4)
6 Explosion Processes 117(38)
6.1 Introduction
117(1)
6.2 Burning
117(6)
6.3 Detonation
123(1)
6.4 Mechanism of Deflagration to Detonation Transition
124(3)
6.5 Shock-to-Detonation
127(1)
6.6 The Propagation of Detonation
128(1)
6.7 Velocity of Detonation
129(4)
6.7.1 Effect of Density of Loading
131(1)
6.7.2 Effect of Diameter of Charge
131(1)
6.7.3 Degree of Confinement
131(1)
6.7.4 Effect of Strength of Detonator
132(1)
6.8 The Measurement of Detonation Velocity
133(1)
6.9 Classifications of Explosives and Pyrotechnics by Functions and Sensitivity
133(2)
6.10 The Effects of High Explosives
135(2)
6.10.1 Energy Distribution in Explosions
135(2)
6.11 Explosive Power
137(1)
6.12 Calculation of Q and V from Thermochemistry of Explosives
138(2)
6.12.1 General Considerations
138(1)
6.12.2 Energy of Decomposition
138(1)
6.12.3 Products of the Explosion Process
139(1)
6.13 Kistiakowsky - Wilson Rules
140(1)
6.14 Additional Equilibria
141(1)
6.15 Energy Released on Detonation
142(2)
6.16 Volume of Gases Produced during Explosion
144(1)
6.17 Explosive Power
145(2)
6.17.1 Improving Explosives Power
146(1)
6.18 Shockwave Effects
147(2)
6.19 Appendices: Measurement of Velocity of Detonation
149(1)
Appendix 6.A: Dautriche Method
149(2)
Appendix 6.B: The Rotating Mirror Streak Camera Method
151(1)
Appendix 6.C: The Continuous Wire Method
152(1)
Appendix 6.D: The Event Circuit
152(1)
Bibliography
153(1)
References
153(2)
7 Decomposition Processes and Initiation of Energetic Materials 155(38)
7.1 Effect of Heat on Explosives
155(7)
7.2 Decomposition Mechanisms
162(10)
7.2.1 Thermal Decomposition Mechanism of TNT
163(1)
7.2.2 Non-Aromatic Nitro Compounds
164(3)
7.2.3 Nitro Ester Thermal Decomposition
167(1)
7.2.4 Nitramine Thermal Decomposition
168(1)
7.2.5 Photon-Induced Decomposition Mechanisms
169(3)
7.3 Practical Initiation Techniques
172(6)
7.3.1 Methods of Initiation
173(1)
7.3.2 Direct Heating
174(1)
7.3.3 Mechanical Methods
175(2)
7.3.4 Electrical Systems
177(1)
7.3.5 Chemical Reaction
177(1)
7.3.6 Initiation by Shockwave
178(1)
7.4 Classification of Explosives by Ease of Initiation
178(1)
7.5 Initiatory Explosives
179(3)
7.5.1 Primary Explosive Compounds
179(2)
7.5.2 Primer Usage
181(1)
7.6 Igniters and Detonators
182(1)
7.7 Explosive Trains
183(7)
7.7.1 Explosive Trains in Commercial Blasting
187(3)
Bibliography
190(1)
References
190(3)
8 Developments in Alternative Primary Explosives 193(28)
8.1 Safe Handling of Novel Primers
193(1)
8.2 Introduction
193(1)
8.3 Totally Organic
194(5)
8.4 Simple Salts of Organics
199(3)
8.5 Transition Metal Complexes and Salts
202(4)
8.6 Enhancement of Laser Sensitivity
206(1)
References
207(4)
Appendix 8.A: Properties of Novel Primer Explosives
211(2)
Appendix 8.B: Molecular Structures of Some New Primer Compounds Purely Organic Primers
213(8)
9 Optical and Thermal Properties of Energetic Materials 221(14)
9.1 Optical Properties
221(10)
9.1.1 Introduction
221(1)
9.1.2 Theoretical Considerations
222(3)
9.1.3 Practical Considerations
225(1)
9.1.4 Examples of Absorption Spectra
226(5)
9.2 Thermal Properties
231(3)
9.2.1 Introduction
231(1)
9.2.2 Heat Capacity
232(1)
9.2.3 Thermal Conductivity
232(1)
9.2.4 Thermal Diffusivity
233(1)
References
234(1)
10 Theoretical Aspects of Laser Interaction with Energetic Materials 235(12)
10.1 Introduction
235(1)
10.2 Parameters Relevant to Laser Interaction
236(1)
10.2.1 Laser Parameters
236(1)
10.2.2 Material Parameters
236(1)
10.3 Mathematical Formalism
237(3)
10.3.1 Basic Concept
237(1)
10.3.2 Optical Absorption
238(2)
10.3.3 Optical Reflection
240(1)
10.4 Heat Transfer Theory
240(5)
References
245(2)
11 Laser Ignition - Practical Considerations 247(22)
11.1 Introduction
247(2)
11.1.1 Laser Source
248(1)
11.1.2 Beam Delivery System
249(1)
11.2 Laser Driven Flyer Plate
249(1)
11.3 Direct Laser Ignition
250(17)
11.3.1 Explosives
251(8)
11.3.2 Propellants
259(4)
11.3.3 LI of Pyrotechnic Materials
263(4)
References
267(2)
12 Conclusions and Future Prospect 269(6)
12.1 Introduction
269(1)
12.2 Theoretical Considerations
269(1)
12.3 Lasers
270(1)
12.4 Optical and Thermal Properties of Energetic Materials
271(1)
12.5 State of the Art: Laser Ignition
271(1)
12.6 Future Prospect
272(2)
References
274(1)
Index 275
Dr S Rafi Ahmad founded and led the Centre for Applied Laser Spectroscopy (CALS) within the Department of Applied Science, Security and Resilience, Cranfield University from 1988 to 2013. He has been active for the last 3 decades in managing/supervising many R&D projects and PhD research students in the field of directed laser and applied laser spectroscopy. Dr Ahmad has authored 52 peer-reviewed publications in scientific journals, and co-authored a book with Dr Cartwright.

Dr Michael Cartwright works on novel explosive compounds and the design of safer formulations and disposal of time expired and unexploded ordnance. He graduated in Chemistry from London University in the 1960s. His first employment was with the UKAEA at Windscale and Calder Hall establishment examining analytical methods for novel nuclear fuels and processing technologies. He researched on sterilisation methods for the Milton Division of Vick International followed by research in nuclear damage processes in solids and organo-metallic chemistry at the University of Bath before moving to Cranfield University at the Royal Military College of Science in 1986. Dr Cartwright has authored over 80 papers in refereed journals and published conference proceedings, and a co-authored book.
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