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E-raamat: Low-Power Crystal and MEMS Oscillators: The Experience of Watch Developments

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Low-Power Crystal and MEMS Oscillators: The Experience of Watch DevelopmentsSuurem pilt
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Electronic oscillators using an electromechanical device as a frequency reference are irreplaceable components of systems-on-chip for time-keeping, carrier frequency generation and digital clock generation. With their excellent frequency stability and very large quality factor Q, quartz crystal resonators have been the dominant solution for more than 70 years. But new possibilities are now offered by micro-electro-mechanical (MEM) resonators, that have a qualitatively identical equivalent electrical circuit.



Low-Power Crystal and MEMS Oscillators concentrates on the analysis and design of the most important schemes of integrated oscillator circuits. It explains how these circuits can be optimized by best exploiting the very high Q of the resonator to achieve the minimum power consumption compatible with the requirements on frequency stability and phase noise. The author has 40 years of experience in designing very low-power, high-performance quartz oscillators for watches and other battery operated systems and has accumulated most of the material during this period. Some additional original material related to phase noise has been added. The explanations are mainly supported by analytical developments, whereas computer simulation is limited to numerical examples. The main part is dedicated to the most important Pierce circuit, with a full design procedure illustrated by examples. Symmetrical circuits that became popular for modern telecommunication systems are analyzed in a last chapter.
Preface xi
Symbols xiii
1 Introduction
1(6)
1.1 Applications of Quartz Crystal Oscillators
1(1)
1.2 Historical Notes
2(1)
1.3 The Book Structure
2(2)
1.4 Basics on Oscillators
4(3)
2 Quartz and MEM Resonators
7(16)
2.1 The Quartz Resonator
7(1)
2.2 Equivalent Circuit
8(2)
2.3 Figure of Merit
10(5)
2.4 Mechanical Energy and Power Dissipation
15(1)
2.5 Various Types of Quartz Resonators
15(3)
2.6 MEM Resonators
18(5)
2.6.1 Basic Generic Structure
18(3)
2.6.2 Symmetrical Transducers
21(2)
3 General Theory of High-Q Oscillators
23(18)
3.1 General Form of the Oscillator
23(2)
3.2 Stable Oscillation
25(2)
3.3 Critical Condition for Oscillation and Linear Approximation
27(1)
3.4 Amplitude Limitation
27(2)
3.5 Start-up of Oscillation
29(1)
3.6 Duality
30(1)
3.7 Basic Considerations on Phase Noise
31(5)
3.7.1 Linear Circuit
31(2)
3.7.2 Nonlinear Time Variant Circuit
33(3)
3.8 Model of the MOS Transistor
36(5)
4 Theory of the Pierce Oscillator
41(52)
4.1 Basic Circuit
41(1)
4.2 Linear Analysis
42(13)
4.2.1 Linearized Circuit
42(4)
4.2.2 Lossless Circuit
46(4)
4.2.3 Phase Stability
50(1)
4.2.4 Relative Oscillator Voltages
51(1)
4.2.5 Effect of Losses
52(2)
4.2.6 Frequency Adjustment
54(1)
4.3 Nonlinear Analysis
55(22)
4.3.1 Numerical Example
55(2)
4.3.2 Distortion of the Gate Voltage
57(1)
4.3.3 Amplitude Limitation by the Transistor Transfer Function
58(10)
4.3.4 Energy and Power of Mechanical Oscillation
68(1)
4.3.5 Frequency Stability
69(2)
4.3.6 Elimination of Unwanted Modes
71(6)
4.4 Phase Noise
77(7)
4.4.1 Linear Effects on Phase Noise
77(1)
4.4.2 Phase Noise in the Nonlinear Time Variant Circuit
78(6)
4.5 Design Process
84(9)
4.5.1 Design Steps
84(5)
4.5.2 Design Examples
89(4)
5 Implementations of the Pierce Oscillator
93(44)
5.1 Grounded-Source Oscillator
93(14)
5.1.1 Basic Circuit
93(2)
5.1.2 Dynamic Behavior of Bias
95(2)
5.1.3 Dynamic Behavior of Oscillation Amplitude
97(3)
5.1.4 Design Examples
100(2)
5.1.5 Implementation of the Drain-to-Gate Resistor
102(4)
5.1.6 Increasing the Maximum Amplitude
106(1)
5.2 Amplitude Regulation
107(16)
5.2.1 Introduction
107(1)
5.2.2 Basic Regulator
108(7)
5.2.3 Amplitude Regulating Loop
115(3)
5.2.4 Simplified Regulator Using Linear Resistors
118(2)
5.2.5 Elimination of Resistors
120(3)
5.3 Extraction of the Oscillatory Signal
123(1)
5.4 CMOS-Inverter Oscillator
124(8)
5.4.1 Direct Implementation
124(5)
5.4.2 Current-controlled CMOS-inverter oscillator
129(3)
5.5 Grounded-Drain Oscillator
132(5)
5.5.1 Basic Implementation
132(1)
5.5.2 Single-Substrate Implementation
133(4)
6 Alternative Architectures
137(64)
6.1 Introduction
137(1)
6.2 Symmetrical Oscillator for Parallel Resonance
137(27)
6.2.1 Basic Structure
137(2)
6.2.2 Linear Analysis with the Parallel Resonator
139(1)
6.2.3 Linear Analysis with the Series Motional Resonator
140(3)
6.2.4 Effect of Losses
143(1)
6.2.5 Nonlinear Analysis
144(5)
6.2.6 Phase Noise
149(8)
6.2.7 Practical Implementations
157(7)
6.3 Symmetrical Oscillator for Series Resonance
164(26)
6.3.1 Basic Structure
164(1)
6.3.2 Linear Analysis
165(7)
6.3.3 Nonlinear Analysis
172(5)
6.3.4 Phase Noise
177(6)
6.3.5 Practical Implementation
183(7)
6.4 Van den Homberg Oscillator
190(4)
6.4.1 Principle and Linear Analysis
190(3)
6.4.2 Practical Implementation and Nonlinear Behavior
193(1)
6.5 Comparison of Oscillators
194(7)
6.5.1 Pierce Oscillator (1)
195(1)
6.5.2 Van den Homberg Oscillator (2)
196(1)
6.5.3 Parallel Resonance Oscillator (3)
196(1)
6.5.4 Series Resonance Oscillator (4)
197(4)
Bibliography 201(2)
Index 203
Eric A. VITTOZ received the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne ( EPFL) in 1961 and 1969 respectively. He joined the Centre Electronique Horloger S.A. (CEH), Neuchâtel, in 1962, where he participated in the development of the first prototypes of electronic watches. In 1971, he was appointed Vice-Director of CEH, supervising advanced developments in electronic watches and other micropower systems. In 1984, he took the responsibility of the Circuits and Systems Research Division of the Swiss Center for Electronics and Microtechnology (CSEM) in Neucâtel, where he was appointed Executive Vice-President, Integrated Circuits and Systems, in 1991. He is also directly responsible for the Advanced Research section of CSEM. His field of personal research interest and activity is the design of low-power analog CMOS circuits, with emphasis on their application to advanced perceptive processing. Since 1975, he has been lecturing and supervising undergraduate and graduate student projects in analog circuit design at EPFL, where he became Professor in 1982. Dr. Vittoz is an IEEE Fellow, has published more than 100 papers and holds 25 patents.
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