| 1 Measurement and Machine Tools-An Introduction |
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1 | (200) |
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1.1 Why the Need for Accurate and Precise Machine Tools-a Brief History |
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1 | (3) |
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1.2 The Early Historical Development of a Linear Measurements |
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4 | (10) |
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1.2.1 The Historical Development of the Metre and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) |
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9 | (3) |
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1.2.2 Optical and Laser Length Measurement |
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12 | (2) |
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1.3 International Standards Laboratories-Why They Are Essential |
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14 | (18) |
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1.3.1 What Is Traceability and Why Is It Necessary? |
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15 | (4) |
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1.3.2 Auditing Metrology: Artefacts, Instrumentation and Equipment |
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19 | (3) |
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1.3.3 National Metrological Research and Calibration Laboratories |
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22 | (10) |
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1.4 Machine Tool's Machining Capabilities |
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32 | (5) |
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1.5 Metrology Equipment Utilised for Basic Machine Tool Calibration Checks |
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37 | (25) |
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37 | (4) |
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41 | (3) |
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1.5.3 Combination Angle Gauges |
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44 | (2) |
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46 | (2) |
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1.5.5 Dial Gauges and Dial Test Indicators |
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48 | (5) |
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1.5.6 Straightedges and Cylindrical Precision Mandrels |
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53 | (6) |
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1.5.7 Precision- and Cylindrical Squares |
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59 | (3) |
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1.6 A Concise History of Machine Tool Calibration |
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62 | (5) |
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1.7 Notable Chronology in Machine Tool Testing |
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67 | (2) |
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1.8 Achievable Accuracy and Precision of Machine Tools |
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69 | (5) |
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1.9 Accuracy and Precision-Produced by a Machine Tool |
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74 | (10) |
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1.10 Designation of Machine Tool Axes and Kinematics |
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84 | (6) |
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1.11 Configurations of Machining and Turning Centres |
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90 | (17) |
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1.11.1 Orthogonal Machine Tools |
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90 | (1) |
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1.11.2 Modular, or Reconfigurable Machine Tools |
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90 | (3) |
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1.11.3 Modular Machine Tool Construction |
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93 | (2) |
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1.11.4 Turning and Machining Centre Configurations |
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95 | (6) |
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1.11.5 CNC Controller Developments |
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101 | (2) |
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1.11.6 Non-orthogonal/Parallel Kinematic Machines (PKM) |
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103 | (4) |
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1.12 Major Elements in a Machine Tool's Construction |
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107 | (70) |
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1.12.1 Headstocks for Turning Centres and Spindles for Machining Centres |
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108 | (6) |
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1.12.2 CNC Conventional Drive Systems and Recirculating Ballscrew s |
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114 | (12) |
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1.12.3 Machine Tool-Bearing Categories |
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126 | (17) |
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1.12.4 Constructional Elements for Machine Tools |
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143 | (11) |
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1.12.5 Linear Motor Drive Systems |
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154 | (5) |
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1.12.6 Linear and Rotary Axis Positioning/Monitoring Systems |
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159 | (18) |
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1.13 Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of Machine Tools |
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177 | (6) |
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1.13.1 FEA of CNC Machine Tools |
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179 | (1) |
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1.13.2 Industrial Machine Tool Case Study in FEA-for a Machining Centre |
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180 | (3) |
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1.14 Basic Construction of Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs) |
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183 | (12) |
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1.14.1 Introduction to the CMM |
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183 | (4) |
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187 | (1) |
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1.14.3 CMM-Mechanical Probe |
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188 | (2) |
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1.14.4 Recent CMM Probing Systems |
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190 | (4) |
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1.14.5 Micro-Metrology Probes |
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194 | (1) |
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195 | (6) |
| 2 Laser Instrumentation and Calibration |
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201 | (78) |
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2.1 Introduction to Lasers |
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201 | (13) |
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2.1.1 Why Is Calibration so Important? |
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202 | (1) |
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2.1.2 Calibration of Laser Interferometers |
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203 | (2) |
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2.1.3 Laser Calibration-Potential Error and Uncertainty Sources |
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205 | (6) |
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2.1.4 Introduction to Laser Machine Calibration |
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211 | (3) |
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2.2 Methods of Machine Acceptance Tests-The Basis for Verification |
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214 | (31) |
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2.2.1 ISO 230 Machine Tool Standards-Previous and Current Calibration Procedures |
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214 | (5) |
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2.2.2 ISO 230-Laser Calibration Procedures on CNC Machine Tools |
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219 | (3) |
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2.2.3 Laser Diagonal Displacement Test |
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222 | (8) |
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2.2.4 Laser Step Diagonal Test |
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230 | (6) |
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2.2.5 Potential Errors-In Three Axes Machine Tools |
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236 | (9) |
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2.3 ISO 10360 for Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) Calibration and Verification |
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245 | (10) |
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2.3.1 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM}-Fundamentals |
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246 | (7) |
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2.3.2 CMM-Environmental Conditions |
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253 | (1) |
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2.3.3 CMM Performance Standards |
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253 | (2) |
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2.4 Calibration of a Rotary Table-With a Rotary Indexer |
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255 | (6) |
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2.4.1 AxisSet™ Checkup-Utilised for Machine Tool Alignments |
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259 | (2) |
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2.5 Machine Tool Linear Axes-Factors Affecting Their Accuracy and Precision |
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261 | (3) |
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2.6 Laser Tracker-Instrumentation, Testing and Applications |
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264 | (10) |
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2.6.1 Laser Tracker-Calibration Procedures |
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267 | (1) |
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2.6.2 Laser Tracker-Frequently Asked Questions |
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268 | (2) |
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2.6.3 Laser Tracker-Machine-Based Research Applications |
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270 | (4) |
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274 | (5) |
| 3 Optical Instrumentation for Machine Calibration |
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279 | (66) |
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3.1 Basic Principles of Light |
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279 | (8) |
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3.1.1 Optical Alignment-Basic Principles |
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284 | (3) |
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3.2 Autocollimation Principles |
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287 | (13) |
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3.2.1 Basic Design of an Autocollimator |
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287 | (3) |
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3.2.2 Autocollimator-its Optical Operational Principle |
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290 | (1) |
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3.2.3 Digital Autocollimators |
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291 | (5) |
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3.2.4 Precision Polygons for Angular Measurements |
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296 | (1) |
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3.2.5 Angular Calibration of a Precision Polygon |
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297 | (2) |
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3.2.6 Calibration of a Rotary Table |
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299 | (1) |
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3.3 The Micro-optic Dual-Axis Autocollimator, or Angledekkor |
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300 | (5) |
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3.3.1 Optical Squares and Prisms |
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302 | (3) |
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3.4 Alignment Telescope-Principles of Alignment |
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305 | (18) |
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3.4.1 Targets for Autocollimators |
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316 | (1) |
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3.4.2 Auto-reflection and Autocollimation |
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317 | (2) |
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3.4.3 Calculating Mirror Gradients |
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319 | (1) |
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3.4.4 Effects of the Earth's Curvature and Atmospheric Refraction |
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320 | (3) |
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3.5 Precision Spirit Level |
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323 | (5) |
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3.6 Optical Instrumentation-Clinometers |
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328 | (5) |
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3.7 Talyvel-Precision Level |
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333 | (9) |
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3.7.1 Software Programs-for Precision Electronic Levels |
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337 | (5) |
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342 | (3) |
| 4 Telescoping Ballbars and Other Diagnostic Instrumentation |
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345 | (36) |
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345 | (21) |
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4.1.1 Machine Tool Health Checks-The Reason Why They Are Necessary |
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345 | (1) |
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4.1.2 Telescoping Ballbars-Historical Development and Operation |
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346 | (8) |
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4.1.3 Telescoping Ballbar-In More Detail |
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354 | (1) |
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4.1.4 Ballbar Testing-Why the Need? |
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354 | (2) |
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4.1.5 Wireless Telescoping Ballbar |
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356 | (3) |
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4.1.6 Telescoping Ballbar-A Closer Examination of Machine Tool Inaccuracies |
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359 | (1) |
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4.1.7 Ballbars-Other Instrumental Variations |
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360 | (6) |
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4.2 Grid Encoders and Linear Comparator Systems |
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366 | (6) |
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4.3 Rotary Analyzer System and Calibration Rings |
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372 | (3) |
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4.4 Calibration Spheres and Rings-for CMMs |
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375 | (3) |
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378 | (3) |
| 5 Artefacts for Machine Verification |
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381 | (92) |
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5.1 Introduction to Artefact Verification-For Interim CMM Checks |
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381 | (12) |
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5.1.1 An Introduction to CMM Error Sources |
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382 | (1) |
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5.1.2 ISO 10360 and CMM Performance |
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382 | (3) |
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5.1.3 Material Standard of Size and CMM Accuracy |
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385 | (7) |
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5.1.4 CMM-Length Measurement and Maximum Permissible Errors |
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392 | (1) |
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5.2 Purpose-Made Artefacts-Testpieces |
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393 | (1) |
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5.3 General Artefacts for CMM Verification |
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394 | (12) |
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5.3.1 Step Gauge-Its Calibration |
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394 | (1) |
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5.3.2 Step Gauge-For Verification of the Accuracy of CMMs |
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395 | (4) |
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5.3.3 Machine Checking Gauge (MCG) |
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399 | (7) |
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5.4 Ball- and Hole-Plates |
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406 | (10) |
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5.4.1 The 3-D Ball-Plates |
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410 | (3) |
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5.4.2 Ball- and Cube-Tetrahedrons |
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413 | (3) |
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5.5 Large Reference Artefact-For Large-Scale CMM Verification |
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416 | (8) |
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5.5.1 Large Reference Artefact (LRA)-Design and Construction |
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418 | (1) |
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5.5.2 Large Reference Artefact-Reference Surfaces |
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419 | (3) |
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5.5.3 Large Reference Artefact-Artefact Positioning, Alignment and Testing |
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422 | (1) |
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5.5.4 Large Reference Artefact-Summary and Concluding Remarks |
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423 | (1) |
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5.6 Machinable-Artefacts for Machine Tool Verification |
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424 | (14) |
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5.6.1 Introduction to Machinable Testpiece Standards |
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424 | (2) |
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5.6.2 Artefact Stereometry-For Dynamic Machine Tool and Comparative Assessment |
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426 | (1) |
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5.6.3 Stereometric Artefact-Conceptual Design |
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427 | (2) |
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5.6.4 Stereometric Artefact-Machining Trials |
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429 | (6) |
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5.6.5 Stereometric Artefact-Machined and Metrological Results |
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435 | (3) |
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5.7 Small Coordinate Measuring Machine (SCMM) |
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438 | (5) |
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5.7.1 Small Coordinate Measuring Machine-Design Requirements |
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438 | (3) |
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5.7.2 Small Coordinate Measuring Machine-Interferometers, Autocollimators and Probe Design |
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441 | (2) |
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5.8 A Novel 3-D-Nano Touch Probe-For an Ultra-Precision CMM |
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443 | (4) |
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5.8.1 Probing Force and Surface Damage |
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445 | (1) |
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5.8.2 The 3-D-Nano Touch Probe-Constructional Details |
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445 | (2) |
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447 | (10) |
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5.9.1 Industrial Robotics-Their Historical Development |
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448 | (1) |
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5.9.2 Defining Robotic Parameters |
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449 | (2) |
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5.9.3 Robotic Calibration |
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451 | (2) |
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5.9.4 Robotic Calibration Devices and Techniques |
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453 | (4) |
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5.10 Parallel Kinematic Mechanism (PKM)-EquatorTm Gauge |
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457 | (4) |
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5.10.1 Theory of Operation-Of the PKM |
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459 | (1) |
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5.10.2 Calibrating This PKM |
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460 | (1) |
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5.11 Articulated Arm CMM (AACMM) |
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461 | (7) |
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5.11.1 Articulated Arm CMMs-In More Detail |
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465 | (2) |
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5.11.2 Verification of Articulated Arm CMM (AACMM) |
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467 | (1) |
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468 | (5) |
| 6 Machine Tool Performance: Spindle Analysis; Corrosion and Condition Monitoring; Thermography |
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473 | (78) |
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6.1 Machine Tool Spindle Analysis |
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473 | (22) |
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6.1.1 Design Trends in Machine Tool Spindles |
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475 | (3) |
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6.1.2 Machine Tool Spindle Failure Modes |
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478 | (7) |
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6.1.3 Complete Machine Tool Retrofits and Rebuilds |
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485 | (10) |
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6.2 Monitoring and Diagnostics of Machine Tool Spindles |
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495 | (3) |
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6.2.1 Spindle Monitoring Instrumentation-For Machine Tools |
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496 | (1) |
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6.2.2 Thermal Distortion-At the Spindle |
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496 | (1) |
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6.2.3 Spindle Error Motions |
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497 | (1) |
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6.3 Spindle Error Analyser (SEA) Instrumentation |
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498 | (9) |
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6.3.1 Spindle Error Analyser-The Master Target and Its Fixtures-Spindle Hardware |
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503 | (1) |
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6.3.2 Spindle Error Analyser-Spindle Software |
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504 | (1) |
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6.3.3 SEA-Thermal Drift-Resulting from Expansion of Materials |
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504 | (1) |
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505 | (1) |
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6.3.5 SEA-How Spindle Measurement Data is Displayed |
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506 | (1) |
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6.3.6 SEA-Spindle Error Plots: For Analysis and Rectification of Bearings |
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506 | (1) |
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6.4 Corrosion-Basic Concepts |
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507 | (12) |
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6.4.1 Understanding Metallic Corrosion-In Brief |
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510 | (4) |
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6.4.2 Machine Tool Spalling-of Bearings and Gears |
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514 | (1) |
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6.4.3 Bearing Failure Modes-With Hard Particle Lubricant Contamination |
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514 | (4) |
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6.4.4 Bearing Contamination |
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518 | (1) |
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6.5 Condition Monitoring-Of Machine Tools |
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519 | (8) |
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6.5.1 Condition Monitoring-Historical Perspective |
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521 | (2) |
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6.5.2 Types of Condition Monitoring Systems |
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523 | (1) |
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6.5.3 Condition Monitoring Systems-Establishing a Programme |
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524 | (3) |
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6.6 Thermographical Inspection |
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527 | (19) |
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6.6.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum-A Brief and Introductory History |
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527 | (5) |
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6.6.2 Thermography-Further Information |
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532 | (3) |
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6.6.3 Thermal Imaging Cameras |
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535 | (2) |
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6.6.4 Emissivity-Thermal Radiation |
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537 | (1) |
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6.6.5 Advantages and Limitations of Thermography |
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538 | (1) |
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6.6.6 Effects of Temperature Variation in Machine Tools |
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539 | (4) |
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6.6.7 Controlling Component Part Temperatures |
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543 | (1) |
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6.6.8 Minimising Heat Sources |
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543 | (1) |
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6.6.9 Temperature Control Strategies |
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544 | (2) |
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546 | (5) |
| 7 Uncertainty of Measurement and Statistical Process Control |
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551 | (58) |
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7.1 Conformance, Traceability and Measurement Uncertainty |
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551 | (4) |
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7.2 Task-Specific Measurement Uncertainty |
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555 | (6) |
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7.2.1 Traceability Reporting |
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555 | (3) |
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7.2.2 Conformance Rules-for Metrological Equipment |
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558 | (3) |
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7.3 Measurement Uncertainty-Typically Relating to Machine Tools and CMMs |
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561 | (24) |
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7.3.1 Statements of Compliance-The Effect of Uncertainty |
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566 | (1) |
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566 | (1) |
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7.3.3 Statistical Measures-In Uncertainty Calculations |
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567 | (7) |
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7.3.4 Origins of Uncertainties |
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574 | (1) |
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7.3.5 Calculation of Measurement Uncertainty |
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575 | (5) |
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7.3.6 Analysis of Uncertainty: Uncertainty Budgets |
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580 | (4) |
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7.3.7 Reducing Measurement Uncertainty |
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584 | (1) |
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7.4 Statistical Process Control (SPC)-In Production Output on Machine Tools |
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585 | (13) |
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7.4.1 What is Statistical Process Control? |
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586 | (1) |
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7.4.2 Control Chart Functions |
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587 | (2) |
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7.4.3 Control Chart-Background Information |
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589 | (2) |
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7.4.4 Control Chart Limits |
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591 | (3) |
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7.4.5 Reading Control Charts |
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594 | (2) |
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7.4.6 Computerised SPC Charts |
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596 | (2) |
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7.5 Machine and Process Capability Studies |
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598 | (7) |
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7.5.1 Machine and Process Capability Studies-Typical Procedure |
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598 | (1) |
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7.5.2 Machine Capability Study-In Detail |
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599 | (2) |
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7.5.3 Machine Tool Capability Study-Practical Example |
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601 | (4) |
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7.5.4 Final Concluding Remarks |
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605 | (1) |
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605 | (4) |
| Appendices |
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609 | (62) |
| Index |
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671 | |
Lisainfo e-raamatute kohta