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E-raamat: Mobility-based Time References for Wireless Sensor Networks

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Mobility-based Time References for Wireless Sensor NetworksSuurem pilt
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Describing the use of low-power, low-cost and extremely small radios to provide essential time referencing for wireless sensor networks, this book provides step-by-step detail on how to integrate them in a standard CMOS process—to reduce both cost and size.

This book describes the use of low-power low-cost and extremely small radios to provide essential time reference for wireless sensor networks. The authors explain how to integrate such radios in a standard CMOS process to reduce both cost and size, while focusing on the challenge of designing a fully integrated time reference for such radios. To enable the integration of the time reference, system techniques are proposed and analyzed, several kinds of integrated time references are reviewed, and mobility-based references are identified as viable candidates to provide the required accuracy at low-power consumption. Practical implementations of a mobility-based oscillator and a temperature sensor are also presented, which demonstrate the required accuracy over a wide temperature range, while drawing 51-uW from a 1.2-V supply in a 65-nm CMOS process.
1 Introduction
1(6)
1.1 Enhancing Perception
1(1)
1.2 References for Wireless Communication
2(1)
1.3 Fully-Integrated Time References
3(1)
1.4 Motivation and Objectives
3(1)
1.5 Organization of the Book
4(3)
References
4(3)
2 Fully Integrated Radios for Wireless Sensor Networks
7(32)
2.1 Introduction
7(1)
2.2 Requirements for a WSN Node
8(3)
2.2.1 Application
9(1)
2.2.2 Cost and Size
10(1)
2.2.3 Energy Consumption
10(1)
2.3 The Network Synchronization
11(10)
2.3.1 Asynchronous vs. Synchronous Networks
11(1)
2.3.2 Duty-Cycled Wake-Up Radio
12(2)
2.3.3 Optimization of MAC Performance
14(3)
2.3.4 Impact of Wake-Up Radio Non-idealities
17(2)
2.3.5 System Performance
19(1)
2.3.6 Master Node
20(1)
2.4 Frequency Accuracy
21(6)
2.4.1 RF Modulation
21(1)
2.4.2 Transmitter Limits
22(1)
2.4.3 Receiver Limits
23(2)
2.4.4 Optimization
25(2)
2.5 Node Architecture
27(7)
2.5.1 Main Radio
28(1)
2.5.2 Wake-Up Radio
28(6)
2.5.3 Time Reference
34(1)
2.6 Conclusions
34(5)
References
35(4)
3 Fully Integrated Time References
39(38)
3.1 Introduction
39(1)
3.2 Sources of Errors
40(7)
3.2.1 Basic Definitions
40(1)
3.2.2 Random Errors
41(4)
3.2.3 Systematic Errors
45(2)
3.3 RC-Based References
47(6)
3.3.1 Frequency Accuracy
48(3)
3.3.2 Implementation
51(2)
3.3.3 Remarks
53(1)
3.4 LC-Based References
53(6)
3.4.1 Frequency Accuracy
53(4)
3.4.2 Implementation
57(2)
3.4.3 Remarks
59(1)
3.5 Thermal-Diffusivity-Based References
59(4)
3.5.1 Principle
59(1)
3.5.2 Frequency Accuracy
60(1)
3.5.3 Implementation
61(1)
3.5.4 Remarks
62(1)
3.6 MOS-Based References
63(2)
3.6.1 Principle
63(1)
3.6.2 Frequency Accuracy
63(1)
3.6.3 Implementation
64(1)
3.6.4 Remarks
64(1)
3.7 Mobility-Based References
65(2)
3.7.1 Principle
65(1)
3.7.2 Frequency Accuracy
65(1)
3.7.3 Implementation
66(1)
3.7.4 Remarks
66(1)
3.8 Other References
67(1)
3.9 Benchmark
68(3)
3.9.1 Requirements for Time References for WSN
68(1)
3.9.2 Discussion
68(3)
3.10 Conclusions
71(6)
References
73(4)
4 A Mobility-Based Time Reference
77(32)
4.1 Introduction
77(1)
4.2 Requirements
78(1)
4.3 Principle of Operation
78(2)
4.3.1 Deriving a Frequency from Carrier Mobility
78(1)
4.3.2 Oscillator Topology
79(1)
4.4 Oscillator Accuracy
80(10)
4.4.1 Trimming and Temperature Compensation
80(1)
4.4.2 Topology of the Current Reference
81(3)
4.4.3 Accuracy of the Current Reference
84(3)
4.4.4 Accuracy of the Oscillator Core
87(2)
4.4.5 Residual Source of Error
89(1)
4.5 Circuit Description
90(6)
4.5.1 Oscillator Structure
90(2)
4.5.2 Current Reference
92(3)
4.5.3 Comparator
95(1)
4.6 Experimental Results
96(4)
4.7 On Temperature Compensation
100(2)
4.8 Effects of Packaging and Process Options
102(4)
4.9 Conclusions
106(3)
References
107(2)
5 Temperature Compensation
109(34)
5.1 Introduction
109(1)
5.2 Architecture of the Time Reference
109(3)
5.3 Requirements on the Temperature Sensor
112(2)
5.3.1 Sampling Rate
112(1)
5.3.2 Accuracy
113(1)
5.3.3 Voltage Supply and Power Consumption
113(1)
5.4 Temperature-Sensor Operating Principle
114(2)
5.5 Sources of Inaccuracy
116(6)
5.5.1 Non-idealities of Bipolar Transistors
116(2)
5.5.2 ADC Accuracy and Quantization Noise
118(2)
5.5.3 Process Spread
120(1)
5.5.4 Non-linearity of Vbe
121(1)
5.6 Temperature-Sensor Circuit Description
122(7)
5.6.1 Current Level in the Bipolar Core
122(2)
5.6.2 Bias Circuit
124(2)
5.6.3 Bipolar Core
126(2)
5.6.4 Sigma-Delta ADC
128(1)
5.7 Temperature-Sensor Characterization
129(4)
5.8 Temperature Compensation of the Time Reference
133(1)
5.9 Experimental Results
134(5)
5.10 Conclusions
139(4)
References
140(3)
6 Conclusions
143(4)
6.1 Main Findings
143(1)
6.2 Applications
144(1)
6.3 Future Research
144(3)
References
145(2)
A Derivation of the Accuracy of Mobility-Based Oscillator
147(12)
A.1 Composite MOS Transistor
147(2)
A.2 Accuracy of the Mobility-Based Current Reference
149(3)
A.2.1 Effect of Mismatch and Finite Output Resistance
149(2)
A.2.2 Effect of Leakage
151(1)
A.3 Matching of Current Mirrors
152(1)
A.4 Behavior of MOS Transistor Mismatch Over Temperature
153(1)
A.4.1 Threshold Voltage
153(1)
A.4.2 Current Factor (β)
154(1)
A.5 Charge of a MOS Capacitor
154(5)
References
157(2)
B Analysis of the Spread of the Mobility-Based Time Reference
159(4)
B.1 Model for the Frequency Error
159(1)
B.2 Analysis of Experimental Data
160(3)
Glossary 163(6)
Index 169
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