List of Figures |
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xiii | |
List of Tables |
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xxi | |
Author Bios |
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xxiii | |
Preface |
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xxv | |
Abbreviations |
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xxvii | |
1 Introduction |
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1 | (16) |
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1.1 What is Multi-Antenna SAR |
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1 | (7) |
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2 | (2) |
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1.1.1.1 Multiple Channels in Elevation |
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2 | (1) |
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1.1.1.2 Multiple Channels in Azimuth |
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3 | (1) |
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1.1.1.3 Multiple Channels in Azimuth and Elevation |
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4 | (1) |
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4 | (4) |
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1.1.2.1 SIMO Multi-Antenna SAR |
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5 | (1) |
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1.1.2.2 MIMO Multi-Antenna SAR |
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6 | (2) |
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1.2 Multi-Antenna SAR Potentials and Challenges |
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8 | (5) |
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1.2.1 Benefits of Multi-Antenna SAR |
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8 | (1) |
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1.2.1.1 Improved System Gain |
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8 | (1) |
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1.2.1.2 Increased Degrees-of-Freedom |
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8 | (1) |
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1.2.2 Application Potentials |
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9 | (2) |
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1.2.2.1 High-Resolution Wide-Swath Remote Sensing |
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9 | (1) |
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1.2.2.2 Ground Moving Targets Indication |
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9 | (1) |
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1.2.2.3 Three-Dimensional Imaging |
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10 | (1) |
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1.2.3 Technical Challenges |
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11 | (6) |
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1.2.3.1 Waveform Diversity Design |
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11 | (1) |
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1.2.3.2 Spatial, Time and Phase, Synchronization |
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12 | (1) |
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1.2.3.3 High-Precision Imaging Algorithm |
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12 | (1) |
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1.3 Organization of the Book |
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13 | (4) |
2 Background Material |
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17 | (46) |
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2.1 Convolution and Correlation |
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17 | (5) |
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2.1.1 Convolution Integral |
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17 | (3) |
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2.1.2 Convolution Theorem |
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20 | (1) |
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2.1.3 Correlation Function |
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21 | (1) |
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2.1.4 Relations Between Convolution and Correlation |
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22 | (1) |
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2.2 Sampling Theorem and Interpolation |
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22 | (5) |
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23 | (1) |
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24 | (1) |
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25 | (2) |
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2.3 Linearly Frequency Modulated Signal and Matched Filtering |
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27 | (6) |
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2.3.1 Principle of Stationary Phase |
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27 | (2) |
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29 | (1) |
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30 | (2) |
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32 | (1) |
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2.4 Radar Ambiguity Function |
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33 | (5) |
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2.4.1 Range Ambiguity Function |
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35 | (1) |
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2.4.2 Velocity Ambiguity Function |
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36 | (1) |
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2.4.3 Properties of the Ambiguity Function |
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37 | (1) |
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2.4.4 Example: LFM Ambiguity Function |
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38 | (1) |
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2.5 Basic Principle of Synthetic Aperture |
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38 | (9) |
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2.5.1 Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging |
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39 | (3) |
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2.5.2 Remote Sensing Swath Width |
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42 | (1) |
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42 | (2) |
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2.5.4 Ambiguity-to-Signal Ratio |
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44 | (5) |
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2.5.4.1 Azimuth Ambiguity-to-Signal Ratio |
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44 | (2) |
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2.5.4.2 Range Ambiguity-to-Signal Ratio |
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46 | (1) |
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2.6 Point spread Function |
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47 | (2) |
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2.7 Basic Image Formation Algorithm |
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49 | (14) |
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2.7.1 Two-Dimensional Spectrum Model |
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50 | (2) |
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2.7.2 Range-Doppler (RD) Algorithm |
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52 | (2) |
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2.7.3 Chirp-Scaling (CS) Algorithm |
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54 | (7) |
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2.7.4 Numerical Simulation Examples |
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61 | (2) |
3 Azimuth Multi-Antenna SAR |
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63 | (48) |
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3.1 Constraints on Resolution and Swath |
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63 | (3) |
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3.2 Displaced Phase Center Antenna Technique |
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66 | (2) |
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3.3 Single-Phase Center Multibeam SAR |
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68 | (8) |
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3.3.1 Azimuth Multichannel Signal Processing |
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69 | (3) |
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3.3.2 System Performance Analysis |
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72 | (4) |
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3.4 Multiple-Phase Center Multibeam SAR |
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76 | (13) |
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3.4.1 System Scheme and Signal Model |
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76 | (2) |
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3.4.2 Nonuniform Spatial Sampling |
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78 | (3) |
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3.4.3 Azimuth Signal Reconstruction Algorithm |
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81 | (4) |
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3.4.4 System Performance Analysis |
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85 | (2) |
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3.4.5 Numerical Simulation Results |
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87 | (2) |
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3.5 Azimuth Scanning Multibeam SAR |
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89 | (6) |
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91 | (2) |
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3.5.2 System Performance Analysis |
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93 | (2) |
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3.6 Azimuth Multi-Antenna SAR in GMTI |
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95 | (14) |
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3.6.1 GMTI via Two-Antenna SAR |
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95 | (3) |
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98 | (5) |
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103 | (6) |
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109 | (2) |
4 Elevation-Plane Multi-Antenna SAR |
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111 | (24) |
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4.1 Null Steering in the Elevation-Plane |
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111 | (3) |
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4.2 Elevation-Plane Multi-Antenna SAR |
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114 | (3) |
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4.3 Several Practical Issues |
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117 | (6) |
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117 | (1) |
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4.3.2 Ill-Condition of the Sensing Matrix |
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117 | (1) |
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4.3.3 Interferences of Nadir Echoes |
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118 | (3) |
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4.3.4 Blind Range Problem |
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121 | (2) |
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4.4 Multi-Antenna Chirp Scaling Imaging Algorithm |
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123 | (4) |
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4.5 System Performance Analysis |
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127 | (2) |
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127 | (2) |
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129 | (1) |
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4.6 Numerical Simulation Results |
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129 | (2) |
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131 | (4) |
5 MIMO SAR Waveform Diversity and Design |
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135 | (42) |
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136 | (3) |
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5.2 Polyphase-Coded Waveform |
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139 | (2) |
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5.3 Discrete Frequency-Coding Waveform |
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141 | (3) |
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5.4 Random Stepped-Frequency Waveform |
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144 | (5) |
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5.4.1 Basic RSF Waveforms |
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145 | (2) |
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147 | (1) |
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5.4.3 Phase-Modulated RSF Waveforms |
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148 | (1) |
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149 | (7) |
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5.5.1 OFDM Single-Pulse Waveform |
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150 | (4) |
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5.5.2 Ambiguity Function Analysis |
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154 | (2) |
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156 | (15) |
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5.6.1 Chirp Diverse Waveform |
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156 | (9) |
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5.6.2 OFDM Chirp Diverse Waveform |
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165 | (4) |
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5.6.3 Waveform Synthesis and Generation |
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169 | (2) |
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5.7 Constant-Envelope OFDM Waveform |
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171 | (3) |
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5.7.1 Peak-to-Average Power Ratio |
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173 | (1) |
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5.7.2 Constant-Envelope OFDM Pulse |
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174 | (1) |
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174 | (3) |
6 MIMO SAR in High-Resolution Wide-Swath Imaging |
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177 | (50) |
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178 | (4) |
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6.2 MIMO SAR System Scheme |
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182 | (6) |
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183 | (2) |
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6.2.2 Equivalent Phase Center |
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185 | (3) |
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6.3 Multidimensional Waveform Encoding SAR HRWS Imaging |
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188 | (8) |
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6.3.1 Multidimensional Encoding Radar Pulses |
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190 | (2) |
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6.3.2 Intrapulse Beamsteering in the Elevation Dimension |
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192 | (2) |
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6.3.3 Digital Beamforming in Azimuth |
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194 | (1) |
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6.3.4 Range Ambiguity to Signal Ratio Analysis |
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195 | (1) |
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6.4 MIMO SAR HRWS Imaging |
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196 | (18) |
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6.4.1 Transmit Subaperturing MIMO Technique |
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197 | (3) |
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6.4.2 Transmit Subaperturing for HRWS Imaging |
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200 | (3) |
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6.4.2.1 NTNR Operation Mode |
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200 | (2) |
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6.4.2.2 NTWR Operation Mode |
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202 | (1) |
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6.4.3 Range Ambiguity to Signal Ratio Analysis |
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203 | (4) |
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6.4.4 Image Formation Algorithms |
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207 | (3) |
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6.4.5 Numerical Simulation Results |
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210 | (4) |
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6.5 Space-Time Coding MIMO SAR HRWS Imaging |
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214 | (12) |
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6.5.1 Space-Time Block Coding |
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214 | (2) |
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6.5.2 Space-Time Coding MIMO SAR Scheme |
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216 | (4) |
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6.5.2.1 Space-Time Coding Transmission in Azimuth |
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217 | (1) |
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6.5.2.2 MIMO Configuration in Elevation |
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218 | (2) |
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6.5.3 Digital Beamforming in Elevation |
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220 | (3) |
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6.5.4 Azimuth Signal Processing |
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223 | (3) |
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226 | (1) |
7 MIMO SAR in Moving Target Indication |
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227 | (24) |
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227 | (2) |
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7.2 MIMO SAR with Multiple Antennas in Azimuth |
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229 | (2) |
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7.3 Adaptive Matched Filtering |
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231 | (3) |
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7.4 Moving Target Indication via Three-Antenna MIMO SAR |
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234 | (6) |
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7.5 Moving Target Indication via Two-Antenna MIMO SAR |
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240 | (4) |
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7.5.1 DPCA and ATI Combined GMTI Model |
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240 | (3) |
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7.5.2 Estimating the Moving Target's Doppler Parameters |
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243 | (1) |
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7.5.3 Focusing the Moving Targets |
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243 | (1) |
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7.6 Imaging Simulation Results |
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244 | (5) |
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249 | (2) |
8 Distributed Multi-Antenna SAR Time and Phase Synchronization |
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251 | (66) |
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8.1 Frequency Stability in Frequency Sources |
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252 | (8) |
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8.1.1 Oscillator Output Signal Model |
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253 | (1) |
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8.1.2 Frequency-Domain Representation |
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254 | (4) |
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8.1.3 Time-Domain Representation |
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258 | (4) |
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258 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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259 | (1) |
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8.1.3.4 Modified Allan Variance |
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259 | (1) |
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8.2 Time and Phase Synchronization Problem in Distributed SAR Systems |
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260 | (2) |
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8.3 Impacts of Oscillator Frequency Instability |
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262 | (13) |
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8.3.1 Analytical Model of Phase Noise |
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263 | (2) |
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8.3.2 Impact of Phase Synchronization Errors |
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265 | (5) |
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8.3.3 Impact of Time Synchronization Errors |
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270 | (5) |
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8.4 Direct-Path Signal-Based Time and Phase Synchronization |
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275 | (10) |
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8.4.1 Time Synchronization |
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275 | (2) |
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8.4.2 Phase Synchronization |
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277 | (4) |
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8.4.3 Prediction of Synchronization Performance |
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281 | (2) |
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281 | (1) |
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281 | (1) |
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8.4.3.3 Analog-Digital-Converter (ADC) |
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282 | (1) |
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8.4.4 Other Possible Errors |
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283 | (2) |
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8.5 GPS-Based Time and Phase Synchronization |
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285 | (16) |
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8.5.1 System Architecture |
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285 | (1) |
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8.5.2 Frequency Synthesis |
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286 | (2) |
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8.5.3 Measuring Synchronization Errors between Osc_PPS and GPS_PPS Signals |
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288 | (2) |
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8.5.4 GPS_PPS Prediction in the Presence of GPS Signal |
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290 | (3) |
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8.5.5 Compensation for Residual Time Synchronization Errors |
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293 | (5) |
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8.5.6 Compensation for Residual Phase Synchronization Errors |
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298 | (3) |
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8.5.7 Synchronization Performance Analysis |
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301 | (1) |
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8.6 Phase Synchronization Link |
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301 | (11) |
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8.6.1 Two-Way Synchronization Link |
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303 | (1) |
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8.6.2 Synchronization Performance |
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304 | (2) |
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8.6.2.1 Continuous Duplex Synchronization |
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304 | (1) |
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8.6.2.2 Pulsed Duplex Synchronization |
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305 | (1) |
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8.6.2.3 Pulsed Alternate Synchronization |
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305 | (1) |
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8.6.3 One-Way Synchronization Link |
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306 | (12) |
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8.6.3.1 Synchronization Scheme |
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306 | (4) |
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8.6.3.2 Synchronization Performance |
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310 | (2) |
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8.7 Transponder-Based Phase Synchronization |
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312 | (4) |
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316 | (1) |
9 Distributed Multi-Antenna SAR Antenna Synchronization |
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317 | (18) |
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9.1 Impacts of Antenna Directing Errors |
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318 | (5) |
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9.1.1 Impacts of Range Antenna Directing Errors |
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318 | (2) |
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9.1.2 Impacts of Azimuth Antenna Directing Errors |
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320 | (1) |
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9.1.3 Impacts of Antenna Directing Errors on Distributed InSAR Imaging |
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321 | (2) |
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9.2 Beam Scan-On-Scan Technique |
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323 | (2) |
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9.2.1 One Transmitting Beam and Multiple Receiving Beams |
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323 | (1) |
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9.2.2 One Transmitting Beam and Flood Receiving Beam |
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324 | (1) |
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9.2.3 Flood Transmitting Beam and One Receiving Beam |
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324 | (1) |
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9.2.4 Flood Transmitting Beam and Multiple Receiving Beams |
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324 | (1) |
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9.2.5 Flood Transmitting Beam and Flood Receiving Beam |
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325 | (1) |
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9.3 Pulse Chasing Technique |
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325 | (1) |
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9.4 sliding Spotlight and Footprint Chasing |
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326 | (2) |
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9.4.1 Transmitter Sliding Spotlight and Receiver Footprint Chasing |
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327 | (1) |
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9.4.2 Transmitter Staring Spotlight and Receiver Footprint Chasing |
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327 | (1) |
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328 | (1) |
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9.5 Multibeam Forming on Receiver |
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328 | (2) |
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9.6 Determination of Baseline and Orientation |
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330 | (4) |
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9.6.1 Four-Antenna-Based Method |
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330 | (2) |
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9.6.2 Three-Antenna-Based Method |
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332 | (2) |
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334 | (1) |
10 Azimuth-Variant Multi-Antenna SAR Image Formulation Processing |
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335 | (28) |
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336 | (4) |
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10.2 Imaging Performance Analysis |
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340 | (7) |
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10.2.1 Imaging Time and Imaging Coverage |
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340 | (1) |
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341 | (1) |
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10.2.3 Azimuth Resolution |
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342 | (2) |
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10.2.4 Simulation Results |
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344 | (3) |
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10.3 Azimuth-Variant Characteristics Analysis |
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347 | (6) |
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10.3.1 Doppler Characteristics |
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347 | (2) |
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10.3.2 Two-Dimensional Spectrum Characteristics |
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349 | (4) |
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353 | (3) |
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10.5 Azimuth-Variant Bistatic SAR Imaging Algorithm |
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356 | (6) |
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362 | (1) |
11 Multi-Antenna SAR Three-Dimensional Imaging |
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363 | (28) |
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363 | (2) |
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11.2 Downward-Looking SAR Three-Dimensional Imaging |
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365 | (6) |
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11.2.1 Signal and Data Model |
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365 | (2) |
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11.2.2 Imaging Resolution Analysis |
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367 | (1) |
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11.2.3 Three-Dimensional Range Migration Algorithm |
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368 | (3) |
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11.3 Side-Looking SAR Three-Dimensional Imaging |
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371 | (3) |
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11.3.1 InSAR for Terrain Elevation Mapping |
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371 | (1) |
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11.3.2 Side-Looking Linear Array SAR |
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372 | (2) |
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11.4 Forward-Looking SAR Three-Dimensional Imaging |
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374 | (2) |
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11.5 Frequency Diverse Array SAR Three-Dimensional Imaging |
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376 | (14) |
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11.5.1 FDA System and Signal Model |
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377 | (4) |
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11.5.2 Application Potentials in Target Imaging |
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381 | (5) |
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11.5.3 Several Discussions |
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386 | (4) |
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11.5.3.1 Waveform Optimization |
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386 | (2) |
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11.5.3.2 Array Configuration |
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388 | (1) |
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11.5.3.3 Optimal Array Processing |
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388 | (2) |
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390 | (1) |
Bibliography |
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391 | (42) |
Index |
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433 | |