Klienditugi: 7440010 (E-R 10-18)

E-raamat: Neglected Tropical Diseases and Phytochemicals in Drug Discovery

Edited by Jonathan Chinenye Ifemeje (Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria), Edited by Muhammad Akram (Government College University in Faisalabad, Pakistan), Edited by Chukwuebuka Egbuna (Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Nigeria)

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Ilmumisaeg: 25-Oct-2021
Kirjastus: John Wiley & Sons Inc
Keel: eng
ISBN-13: 9781119617150

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NEGLECTED TROPICAL DISEASES AND PHYTOCHEMICALS IN DRUG DISCOVERY

Explore novel drug discovery updates from medicinal plants to help fight the devastating effects of neglected tropical diseases

Neglected Tropical Diseases and Phytochemicals in Drug Discovery delivers a comprehensive exploration of the drug discovery process as it pertains to neglected tropical diseases. The book covers recent advancements in drug discovery, as well as druggable targets and new challenges facing the industry. It offers readers expansive discussions of specific diseases, including protozoan, helminth, bacterial, viral, fungal, and ectoparasitic infections.

This book provides readers with insightful perspectives from leading industry voices on fifty years of trends and progress in the search for new, safe, and affordable therapeutic drugs in the fight against neglected tropical diseases. It includes information beneficial to researchers in a variety of fields of biology, chemistry, medicine, and pharmaceuticals.

The distinguished authors cover topics including the effects of phytochemicals on the causative agent of leprosy and the potential applicability of phytochemicals in the management of Dengue fever. Readers will also enjoy the inclusion of:

Thorough introductions to neglected tropical diseases, phytochemicals, protein targets, and mechanisms in drug discovery, as well as the epidemiology of neglected tropical diseases
An exploration of novel bioactive lead compounds for drug discovery against neglected tropical diseases, leishmaniasis, lymphatic filariasis, trypanosomiasis, and schistosomiasis
Discussions of protozoan infections, including herbal, nutritional, and traditional remedies for giardiasis and the anti-leishmanial potentials of phytochemicals
Examinations of helminth infections, including the prospects of phytochemicals in the treatment of helminthiasis

Perfect for medicinal chemists, drug developers, and research and development scientists, Neglected Tropical Diseases and Phytochemicals in Drug Discovery will also earn a place in the libraries of toxicologists and researchers in biology, chemistry, medicinal chemistry, ethnobotany, and bioinformatics seeking a one-stop resource for drug discovery for neglected tropical diseases.

List of Contributors

xxi

Preface

xxvii

Part I Introduction to Neglected Tropical Diseases

(134)

1 Epidemiology of Neglected Tropical Diseases

(34)

Kurubaran Ganasegeran

Surajudeen Abiola Abdulrahman

List of Abbreviations

(1)

1.1 Introduction

(2)

1.2 Protozoan Infections

(4)

1.2.1 Human African Trypanosomiasis

(1)

1.2.2 Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis)

(2)

1.2.3 Leishmaniasis

(1)

1.2.4 Amoebiasis

(1)

1.3 Helminth Infections

(10)

1.3.1 Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis Infections

(3)

1.3.2 Schistosomiasis

(1)

1.3.3 Echinococcosis

(1)

1.3.4 Lymphatic Filariasis

(3)

1.3.5 Onchocerciasis ("River Blindness")

(1)

1.3.6 Foodborne Trematodiases

(1)

1.3.7 Dracunculiasis (Also Called Guinea Worm Disease)

(1)

1.4 Bacterial Infections

(5)

1.4.1 Yaws

(1)

1.4.2 Trachoma

(1)

1.4.3 Leprosy

(2)

1.4.4 Buruli Ulcer

(1)

1.5 Viral Infections

(2)

1.5.1 Rabies

(1)

1.5.2 Dengue

(1)

1.5.3 Chikungunya

(1)

1.6 Fungal and Ectoparasitic Infections

(4)

1.6.1 Chromoblastomycosis, Mycetoma/Eumycetoma, and Other Deep Mycoses

(2)

1.6.2 Scabies

(1)

1.6.3 Myiasis

(1)

1.7 Future Direction

(1)

1.8 Conclusion

(1)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(5)

2 Neglected Tropical Diseases, Phytochemicals, Protein Targets, and Mechanisms in Drug Discovery

(38)

Lalit R. Samant

Tehseen M. Dhorajiwala

Sumit T. Haldar

List of Abbreviations

(1)

2.1 Introduction

(2)

2.2 African Trypanosomiasis

(2)

2.2.1 Phytochemicals Against African Trypanosomiasis

(1)

2.3 Buruli Ulcer

(2)

2.3.1 Phytochemicals Against Buruli Ulcer

(1)

2.4 Chagas Disease

(2)

2.4.1 Phytochemicals Against Chagas Disease

(1)

2.5 Chikungunya

(2)

2.5.1 Phytochemicals Against Chikungunya

(1)

2.6 Dengue

(2)

2.6.1 Phytochemicals Against Dengue

(1)

2.7 Leishmaniasis

(2)

2.7.1 Phytochemicals Against Leishmaniasis

(1)

2.8 Leprosy

(2)

2.8.1 Indeterminate Leprosy

(1)

2.8.2 Phytochemicals Against Leprosy

(1)

2.9 Lymphatic Filariasis

(2)

2.9.1 Phytochemicals Against Lymphatic Filariasis

(1)

2.10 Mycetoma

(2)

2.10.1 Phytochemicals Against Mycetoma

(1)

2.11 Onchocerciasis

(1)

2.11.1 Phytochemicals Against Onchocerciasis

(1)

2.12 Rabies

(2)

2.12.1 Phytochemicals Against Rabies

(1)

2.13 Scabies

(1)

2.13.1 Phytochemicals Against Scabies

(1)

2.14 Schistosomiasis

(4)

2.14.1 Phytochemicals Against Schistosomiasis

(3)

2.15 Conclusion

(1)

References

(9)

3 Novel Bioactive Lead Compounds for Drug Discovery Against Neglected Tropical Diseases, Leishmaniasis, Lymphatic Filariasis, Trypanosomiasis (African Sleeping Sickness and Chagas Disease), and Schistosomiasis

(60)

Abeer M. El Sayed

Chukwuebuka Egbuna

List of Abbreviations/Definitions

(1)

3.1 Introduction

(1)

3.2 Prevalence of Neglected Tropical Diseases

(19)

3.2.1 Leishmaniasis

(6)

3.2.2 Lymphatic Filariasis

(4)

3.2.3 Trypanosomiasis

(1)

3.2.3.1 African Trypanosomiasis (African Sleeping Sickness)

(1)

3.2.3.2 American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas Disease)

(1)

3.2.4 Schistosomiasis

(4)

3.3 Novel, Economical, and Efficacious Therapeutics from Medicinal Plants Against NTDs

(21)

3.3.1 Phytochemicals Effective Against Leishmania Parasite

(9)

3.3.2 Plants and Phytochemicals Effective Against Filarial Parasite

105

(6)

3.3.3 Plants and Phytochemicals Effective Against Trypanosomasis

111

(4)

3.3.4 Plants and Phytochemicals Effective Against Schistosomiasis

115

(2)

3.4 Future Prospects

117

(1)

3.5 Conclusion

117

(1)

References

118

(17)

Part II Protozoan Infections

135

(64)

4 Herbal, Nutritional, and Traditional Remedies for Giardiasis: Phytochemicals as Drug Candidates

137

(34)

Samrat Bhattacharyya

List of Abbreviations

137

(1)

4.1 Introduction

137

(4)

4.1.1 Epidemiology and Symptoms of Giardiasis

138

(1)

4.1.2 Life Cycle of G. duodenalis

138

(1)

4.1.3 Pathophysiology of Giardial Infection

139

(1)

4.1.4 Resistance to Allopathic Drug and Relevance of Herbal Medication

140

(1)

4.2 Plant-Based Dietary Supplements for Giardiasis Management

141

(5)

4.2.1 Oligosaccharide and Disaccharidase Supplementation

141

(2)

4.2.2 Dietary Fiber-Enriched Food

143

(1)

4.2.3 Agglutinin from Wheat

143

(1)

4.2.4 Vitamin and Mineral Supplements

144

(1)

4.2.4.1 Vitamin A Supplementation

144

(1)

4.2.4.2 Compensation of Vitamin B12

144

(1)

4.2.4.3 Zinc Status Management

145

(1)

4.2.5 Fermented Vegetables as Probiotic Source

145

(1)

4.2.6 Phenolic Compound Enriched Plant Food

146

(1)

4.3 Traditional Treatment of Giardiasis with Herbal Ethnomedicine

146

(5)

4.3.1 Hints of Antiprotozoal Medicines from Ancient Communities

146

(2)

4.3.2 Domestic Remedies and Alternative Medicine for Giardiasis

148

(1)

4.3.3 Applied Spectrum of Ethnopharmacology in Different Continents

149

(1)

4.3.3.1 Asian Medicinal Extracts

149

(1)

4.3.3.2 African Traditional Medicines

150

(1)

4.3.3.3 South American Ethnomedicine

150

(1)

4.4 Phytochemical Candidates for Advanced Giardicidal Drug Development

151

(6)

4.4.1 Terpenoids

152

(1)

4.4.2 Aromatic Ether

153

(1)

4.4.3 Alkaloids

153

(1)

4.4.4 Organo-sulfur Compounds

154

(1)

4.4.5 Lipids and Steroids

155

(1)

4.4.6 Phenolic Compounds

155

(2)

4.5 Future Prospects

157

(4)

4.5.1 Extension of Medicinal Compound Screening

157

(1)

4.5.2 Methodical Studies on Toxicology and Drug Adversity

157

(3)

4.5.3 Correlation of Herbal Drugs with Molecular Targets of Giardia

160

(1)

4.6 Summary, Prospects, and Conclusion

161

(1)

References

161

(10)

5 Antiprotozoal Activity of Phytochemicals Against Entamoeba histolytica, the Causative Agent of Amoebiasis

171

(12)

Goutam Kumar Jena

Chinam Niranjan Patra

Jnyanaranjan Panda

List of Abbreviations

171

(1)

5.1 Introduction

171

(2)

5.2 Life Cycle of Entamoeba histolytica

173

(1)

5.3 Diagnostic Techniques for Identification of E. histolytica

174

(2)

5.3.1 Intestinal Amoebiasis

174

(1)

5.3.1.1 Microscopy

174

(1)

5.3.1.2 Culture and Isoenzyme Analysis

175

(1)

5.3.1.3 Antigen Detection Test

175

(1)

5.3.1.4 Molecular-Based Test

175

(1)

5.3.1.5 Point-of-Care (POC) Test

175

(1)

5.4 Treatment of Amoebiasis

176

(1)

5.5 Alternative Treatment for Amoebiasis

176

(1)

5.6 Chemical Structure of Phytochemicals Effective Against E. histolytica

177

(1)

5.7 Possible Mechanisms of Phytochemicals as Antiamoebic

177

(3)

5.8 Future Projections

180

(1)

5.9 Conclusion

180

(1)

References

181

(2)

6 Antileishmanial Potentials of Phytochemicals

183

(16)

Shahira M. Ezzat

Mohamed A. Salem

Ahmed Zayed

6.1 Introduction

183

(1)

6.2 Antileishmanial Activity of Propolis

184

(2)

6.2.1 Propolis from Turkey

184

(1)

6.2.2 Propolis from Brazil

184

(1)

6.2.3 Propolis from Portugal

185

(1)

6.2.4 Propolis from Cuba

185

(1)

6.2.5 Propolis from Ecuador

185

(1)

6.3 Antileishmanial Activity of Wild Mushrooms

186

(1)

6.4 Antileishmanial Activity of Medicinal Plants from Various Flora

187

(5)

6.4.1 Peruvian Flora

187

(2)

6.4.2 Ecuadorean Flora

189

(1)

6.4.3 Mexican Flora

190

(1)

6.4.4 Bolivian Flora

191

(1)

6.4.5 Iranian Flora

191

(1)

6.5 Antileishmanial Activity of Chemical Constituents

192

(2)

6.5.1 Alkaloids

192

(1)

6.5.2 Flavonoids

193

(1)

6.5.3 Terpenes

193

(1)

6.5.4 Glycoglycerolipids

193

(1)

6.5.5 Guttiferone A as a Lead Compound for Semisynthesis of Antileishmanial Molecules

193

(1)

6.6 Conclusion

194

(1)

References

194

(5)

Part III Helminth Infections

199

(138)

7 Prospects of Phytochemicals for the Treatment of Helminthiasis

201

(24)

Muhammad Akram

Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji

Ejaz Mohiuddin

Tolulope Olawumi Oladosun

Phebean Ozolua

Frances N. Olisaka

Chukwuebuka Egbuna

Olugbenga Samuel Micheal

Juliana Bunmi Adetunji

Leena Hameed

Chinaza Godswill Awuchi

Kingsley C. Patrick-Iwuanyanwu

Olugbemi Tope Olaniyan

List of Abbreviations

201

(1)

7.1 Introduction

202

(1)

7.1.1 History

203

(1)

7.1.2 Prevalence

203

(1)

7.2 Molecular Characteristics of Soil-transmitted Helminthiasis

203

(1)

7.3 Clinical Features and Pathogenesis

204

(2)

7.4 Prevention

206

(1)

7.5 Treatment

207

(1)

7.6 Plants and Phytochemicals with Anthelmintic Activities

208

(4)

7.6.1 Modes of Action of Phytochemical Against the Soil-transmitted Helminthiasis

212

(1)

7.7 Scientific Reports of Medicinal Plants with Anthelmintic Properties

212

(3)

7.7.1 Adhatoda vasica

212

(1)

7.7.2 Allium sativum

212

(1)

7.7.3 Baliospermum montanum Muell

213

(1)

7.7.4 Butea monosperma

213

(1)

7.7.5 Calotropis procera

213

(1)

7.7.6 Carica papaya

213

(1)

7.7.7 Ficus benghalensis

214

(1)

7.7.8 Mimosa pudica

214

(1)

7.7.9 Punica granatum

214

(1)

7.7.10 Verbascum thapsus

214

(1)

7.7.11 Zingiber officinale

215

(1)

7.8 Future Prospects

215

(1)

7.9 Conclusion

216

(1)

References

216

(9)

8 Efficacy of Phytochemicals of Medicinal Plants for the Treatment of Human Echinococcosis: Echinococcal Disease, Hydatidosis, or Hydatid Disease Drug Discovery

225

(20)

Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji

Chukwuebuka Egbuna

Tolulope Olawumi Oladosun

Muhammad Akram

Olugbenga Samuel Micheal

Frances N. Olisaka

Phebean Ozolua

Juliana Bunmi Adetunji

Goddidit Esiro Enoyoze

Olugbemi Tope Olaniyan

List of Abbreviations

225

(1)

8.1 Introduction

226

(2)

8.2 Molecular Analysis

228

(1)

8.3 Life Cycle of Echinococcosis

228

(2)

8.4 Previous Studies on the Positive Effects of Medicinal Plants and Phytochemicals

230

(8)

8.4.1 In vitro and in vivo Effect of Phytochemicals Against Echinococcus Infection

234

(4)

8.5 Synthetic Drugs Previously Used for Management of Echinococcosis Disease

238

(1)

8.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects

239

(1)

References

239

(6)

9 Filaricidal Activity of Phytochemicals Against Lymphatic Filariasis

245

(26)

Jayashree V. Hanchinalmath

Darcia D'mello

Kirankumar Shivasharanappa

T. Pramod

Sharangouda J. Patil

List of Abbreviations

245

(1)

9.1 Introduction

246

(1)

9.2 Life Cycle of the Parasite

247

(1)

9.3 Synthetic Drugs Used for Treatment of Lymphatic Filariasis

248

(2)

9.4 Phytochemicals Used for the Treatment of Lymphatic Filariasis

250

(13)

9.4.1 Acacia auriculiforrnis

250

(1)

9.4.2 Aegle marmelos

250

(6)

9.4.3 Alnus nepalensis

256

(1)

9.4.4 Andrographis paniculata

256

(1)

9.4.5 Azadirachta indica

256

(1)

9.4.6 Bauhinia racemosa

256

(1)

9.4.7 Butea monosperma

257

(1)

9.4.8 Caesalpinia bonducella

257

(1)

9.4.9 Cardiospermum halicacabum

257

(1)

9.4.10 Centratherum anthelminticum

258

(1)

9.4.11 Excoecaria agallocha

258

(1)

9.4.12 Ficus racemosa

258

(1)

9.4.13 Glycyrrhiza glabra

258

(1)

9.4.14 Hibiscus sabdariffa

259

(1)

9.4.15 Lantana camara

259

(1)

9.4.16 Leucas cephalotes

259

(1)

9.4.17 Mallotus philippensis

260

(1)

9.4.18 Morinda citrifolia

260

(1)

9.4.19 Moringa oleifera

260

(1)

9.4.20 Plumbago indica

260

(1)

9.4.21 Pongamia pinnata

261

(1)

9.4.22 Psoralea corylifolia

261

(1)

9.4.23 Ricinus communis

261

(1)

9.4.24 Saxifraga stracheyion

261

(1)

9.4.25 Sphaeranthus indicus

262

(1)

9.4.26 Streblus asper

262

(1)

9.4.27 Trachyspermum ammi

262

(1)

9.4.28 Vitex negundo

262

(1)

9.4.29 Xylocarpus granatum

263

(1)

9.4.30 Zingiber officinale

263

(1)

9.5 Future Perspective

263

(1)

9.6 Conclusion

264

(1)

References

264

(7)

10 Dracunculiasis (Guinea Worm Disease) and Phytochemicals in Drug Discovery

271

(12)

Muhammad Akram

Chukwuebuka Egbuna

Mehwish lqbal

Zarrin Basharat

Mithun Rudrapal

Kingsley C. Patrick-lwuanyanwu

Johra Khan

Chukwuemelie Zedech Uche

List of Abbreviations

271

(1)

10.1 Introduction

271

(2)

10.2 Historical Insights of Dracunculiasis

273

(1)

10.3 Prevalence, Burden, and Distribution of Disease

273

(1)

10.4 Life Cycle, Pathogenesis, and Clinical Manifestations of Dracunculiasis

273

(2)

10.5 Prevention and Eradication of Disease

275

(1)

10.6 Medicinal Plants and Phytochemicals Active Against Dracunculiasis

276

(1)

10.7 Conclusion

277

(1)

Acknowledgments

277

(1)

References

277

(6)

11 Medicinal Potentials of Phytochemicals as a Source of Drugs for the Treatment of Onchocerciasis (River Blindness)

283

(16)

Chandrashekar Srinivasa

Chandan Shivamallu

S.R. Santhosh Kumar

P Sushma

Shiva Prasad Kollur

Seema J. Patel

S.S. Patil

R. Suhas

Chukwuebuka Egbuna

Bui Thanh Tung

List of Abbreviations

283

(1)

11.1 Introduction

284

(1)

11.2 Biology and Life Cycle of Onchocerca volvulus

284

(2)

11.2.1 Blackflies - the Vector of Onchocerciasis

286

(1)

11.3 Onchocerciasis Distribution (Epidemiology)

286

(2)

11.3.1 African Perspectives

288

(1)

11.3.2 American Perspectives

288

(1)

11.4 Disease Symptoms

288

(1)

11.5 Disease Diagnosis

289

(1)

11.6 Disease Treatment

290

(1)

11.7 Phytochemicals as a Source of Drugs for Onchocerciasis Treatment

291

(3)

11.7.1 Lophira lanceolata

292

(1)

11.7.2 Plants Belonging to Anacardiaceae Family

292

(1)

11.7.3 Plants Belonging to Euphorbiaceae Family

292

(1)

11.7.4 Plants Belonging to Annonaceae Family

292

(1)

11.7.5 Plants Belonging to Meliaceae Family

293

(1)

11.7.6 Plants Belonging to Apocynaceae Family

293

(1)

11.7.7 Plants Belonging to Flacourtiaceae Family

293

(1)

11.7.8 Plants Belonging to Combretaceae Family

293

(1)

11.7.9 Plants Belonging to Cucurbitaceae Family

294

(1)

11.7.10 Plants Belonging to Cyperaceae Family

294

(1)

11.8 Future Projection

294

(1)

11.8.1 Disease Prevention and Elimination

294

(1)

11.9 Conclusion

295

(1)

References

295

(4)

12 Foodbome Trematodiases and Phytochemicats

299

(38)

Shashank M. Patil

Ramith Ramu

Prithvi S. Shirahatti

K. Sumana

List of Abbreviations

299

(1)

12.1 Introduction

300

(7)

12.2 Foodborne Trematodiases Affecting Liver

307

(8)

12.2.1 Opisthorchiasis and Clonorchiasis

307

(1)

12.2.1.1 Life Cycle and Transmission

307

(1)

12.2.1.2 Epidemiology

308

(1)

12.2.1.3 Pathogenesis

309

(1)

12.2.1.4 Diagnosis

310

(1)

12.2.1.5 Chemotherapy

310

(1)

12.2.1.6 Phytotherapy

310

(1)

12.2.1.7 Prevention and Control

311

(1)

12.2.2 Fascioliasis

312

(1)

12.2.2.1 Life Cycle and Transmission

312

(1)

12.2.2.2 Epidemiology

312

(1)

12.2.2.3 Pathogenesis

313

(1)

12.2.2.4 Diagnosis

313

(1)

12.2.2.5 Chemotherapy

314

(1)

12.2.2.6 Phytotherapy

314

(1)

12.2.2.7 Prevention and Control

315

(1)

12.3 Foodborne Trematodiases Affecting Lungs

315

(3)

12.3.1 Paragonimiasis

315

(1)

12.3.1.1 Life Cycle and Transmission

315

(1)

12.3.1.2 Epidemiology

316

(1)

12.3.1.3 Pathogenesis

316

(1)

12.3.1.4 Diagnosis

316

(1)

12.3.1.5 Chemotherapy

317

(1)

12.3.1.6 Phytotherapy

317

(1)

12.3.1.7 Prevention and Control

317

(1)

12.4 Foodborne Trematodiases Affecting Intestine

318

(8)

12.4.1 Fasciolopsiasis

318

(1)

12.4.1.1 Life Cycle and Transmission

318

(1)

12.4.1.2 Epidemiology

319

(1)

12.4.1.3 Pathogenesis

319

(1)

12.4.1.4 Diagnosis

319

(1)

12.4.1.5 Chemotherapy

320

(1)

12.4.1.6 Phytotherapy

320

(1)

12.4.1.7 Prevention and Control

320

(1)

12.4.2 Echinostomiasis

321

(1)

12.4.2.1 Life Cycle and Transmission

321

(1)

12.4.2.2 Epidemiology

321

(1)

12.4.2.3 Pathogenesis

322

(1)

12.4.2.4 Diagnosis

322

(1)

12.4.2.5 Chemotherapy

323

(1)

12.4.2.6 Phytotherapy

323

(1)

12.4.2.7 Prevention and Control

323

(1)

12.4.3 Heterophyiasis

324

(1)

12.4.3.1 Life Cycle and Transmission

324

(1)

12.4.3.2 Epidemiology

324

(1)

12.4.3.3 Pathogenesis

325

(1)

12.4.3.4 Diagnosis

325

(1)

12.4.3.5 Chemotherapy

325

(1)

12.4.3.6 Phytotherapy

326

(1)

12.4.3.7 Prevention and Control

326

(1)

12.5 Perspectives and Projections

326

(2)

12.6 Conclusion

328

(1)

References

328

(9)

Part IV Bacterial Infections

337

(80)

13 Bacteriocidal Effects of Phytochemicals on Mycobacterium ulcerans, the Causative Agents of Buruli Ulcer

339

(20)

Alloysius Chibuike Ogodo

Francis Ushie Ebuara

Chidera Favour Ogodo

List of Abbreviations

339

(1)

13.1 Introduction

339

(3)

13.2 Ethnopharmacological Use of Plants to Control Mycobacterium ulcerans Infection

342

(1)

13.3 Activities of Selected Plants and Bioactive Compounds Against Mycobacterium ulcerans

343

(7)

13.3.1 Aloe vera

343

(1)

13.3.2 Jatropha curcas L.

343

(4)

13.3.3 Cleome viscosa

347

(1)

13.3.4 Alstonia boonei De Wild

347

(1)

13.3.5 Spathodea campanulata P. Beauv.

348

(1)

13.3.6 Phyllanthus fraternus

348

(1)

13.3.7 Pupalia lappacea Juss

348

(1)

13.3.8 Capsicum annum

348

(1)

13.3.9 Ageratum conyzoides

349

(1)

13.3.10 Lannea nigritana Keay

349

(1)

13.3.11 Psidium guajava

349

(1)

13.3.12 Bridelia ferruginea Benth

349

(1)

13.3.13 Senna occidentalis (L.)

350

(1)

13.3.14 Aglaonema commutatum Schott

350

(1)

13.4 Compounds with Potency Against Mycobacterium ulcerans

350

(1)

13.5 Future Prospects of Phytochemicals Against M. ulcerans

350

(1)

13.6 Conclusion

351

(1)

References

352

(7)

14 Bactericidal Effects of Phytochemicals on Mycobacterium leprae, the Causative Agent of Leprosy

359

(22)

Chukwuebuka Egbuna

Muhammad Akram

Surajudeen Abiola Abdulrahman

Andrew G. Mtewa

Mithun Rudrapal

Kingsley C. Patrick-Iwuanyanwu

Saher Rahat !ram Ghaffar

Amna Siddique

Jonathan Chinenye Ifemeje

Michael C. Olisah

Mihnea-Alexandru Oman

Bui Thanh Tung

Chandan Shivamallu

Chukwuemelie Zedech Uche

Johra Khan

List of Abbreviations

360

(1)

14.1 Introduction

360

(2)

14.2 Epidemiology of Leprosy

362

(1)

14.3 Clinical Sign and Symptoms of Leprosy

362

(3)

14.4 Classification of Leprosy

365

(1)

14.5 Diagnosis of Leprosy

365

(1)

14.6 Management of Leprosy

366

(1)

14.7 Computational Drug Development Aspects of Leprosy

366

(3)

14.8 Bactericidal Activity of Different Phytochemicals in Leprosy

369

(5)

14.8.1 Tinospora cordifolia Linn.

369

(1)

14.8.2 Khaya senegalensis Ders. A. Juss.

369

(3)

14.8.3 Azadirachta indica Linn.

372

(1)

14.8.4 Gynocardia odorata Roxb.

372

(1)

14.8.5 Cassia fistula Linn.

373

(1)

14.8.6 Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.

373

(1)

14.8.7 Terminalia bellirica Roxb.

374

(1)

14.8.8 Ricinus communis Linn.

374

(1)

14.9 Future Prospects

374

(1)

14.10 Conclusion

375

(1)

Acknowledgments

376

(1)

References

376

(5)

15 Medicinal Plants and Phytochemicals Effective Against Chlamydia trachomatis, the Causative Agent of Trachoma

381

(16)

Yusuf Abubakar

Chukwuebuka Egbuna

Ahmed Olatunde

Habibu Tijjani

Uchenna Estella Odoh

List of Abbreviations

381

(1)

15.1 Introduction

381

(2)

15.2 The Causative Organism of Trachoma

383

(1)

15.3 Treatment of Trachoma

384

(7)

15.3.1 Conventional Treatment

385

(1)

15.3.2 Traditional Medicine

386

(1)

15.3.3 Phytochemical Lead Compounds Effective Against Trachoma

387

(1)

15.3.3.1 Catechins

387

(1)

15.3.3.2 Baicalin

388

(1)

15.3.3.3 Lipids

388

(1)

15.3.3.4 Peptides

391

(1)

15.4 Future Prospects

391

(1)

15.5 Conclusion

391

(1)

References

392

(5)

16 Yaws (Endemic Treponematoses) Drug Discovery from Phytochemicals: An Informatics Protocol for Drug Target Identification to Phytochemical Inhibitor Screening and Validation

397

(20)

Zarrin Basharat

Arisha Khoso

List of Abbreviations

397

(1)

16.1 Introduction

398

(2)

16.2 Methods

400

(2)

16.3 Results and Discussion

402

(8)

16.3.1 Genome Analysis

402

(1)

16.3.2 Therapeutic Candidate Mining

402

(1)

16.3.3 Structure Modeling

403

(1)

16.3.4 Docking/Virtual Screening

404

(3)

16.3.5 Dynamics Simulation

407

(3)

16.4 Future Projection

410

(1)

16.5 Conclusion

411

(1)

References

411

(6)

Part V Viral Infections

417

(36)

17 Dengue Fever: A Brief Overview and Insights into the Potential Applicability of Phytochemicals in Its Management

419

(22)

Muhammad Akram

Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji

Chukwuebuka Egbuna

Shaista Jabeen

Olugbemi Tope Olaniyan

Nebechi Jane Ezeofor

Osikemekha Anthony Anani

Umme Laila

Mihnea-Alexandru Gilman

Kingsley C. Patrick-lwuanyanwu

Jonathan Chinenye lfemeje

Chukwudi Jude Chikwendu

Michael C. Olisah

Mithun Rudrapal

List of Abbreviations

420

(1)

17.1 Introduction

420

(2)

17.1.1 Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever

421

(1)

17.1.2 Dengue Shock Syndrome

422

(1)

17.2 Dengue Epidemiology

422

(1)

17.3 Dengue Fever Symptoms

422

(1)

17.4 Treatment and Management of Dengue

423

(1)

17.5 Therapeutic Effects of Medicinal Plants Against Dengue

424

(4)

17.6 Scientific Evidence of Ameliorative Effects of Phytochemicals on Dengue Fever

428

(5)

17.7 Conclusion

433

(1)

References

434

(7)

18 Medicinal Potentials of Phytochemicals for the Management of Rabies

441

(12)

D. Chandan

Shiva Prasad Kollur

Shashanka K. Prasad

Chandrashekar Srinivasa

Prabhurajeshwar

S.M. Gopinath

Chukwuebuka Egbuna

Chandan Shivamallu

List of Abbreviations

441

(1)

18.1 Introduction

441

(3)

18.2 Epidemiology of Rabies

444

(1)

18.3 Morphology of Rabies Virus

445

(1)

18.4 Medicinal Plants a Rabies Virus

446

(3)

18.5 Conclusion

449

(1)

References

449

(4)

Part VI Fungal and Ectoparasitic Infections

453

(46)

19 Roles of Medicinal Plants in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Eumycetoma

455

(22)

Chinaza Godswill Awuchi

Muhammad Akram

Chibueze Gospel Awuchi

19.1 Introduction

455

(3)

19.2 Brief History

458

(1)

19.3 Signs and Symptoms of Mycetoma (Eumycetoma)

458

(1)

19.4 Clinical Features of Mycetoma

459

(1)

19.5 Causes of Mycetoma

459

(2)

19.6 Epidemiology of Mycetoma

461

(1)

19.7 Pathogenesis of Mycetoma (Eumycetoma)

461

(1)

19.8 Mycetoma (Eumycetoma) Diagnosis

462

(1)

19.9 Treatment of Mycetoma (Eumycetoma)

462

(2)

19.10 Experimental Evidence of Plants Tested for the Treatment of Eumycetoma

464

(1)

19.11 Medicinal Plants as Sources of Novel Drugs for the Treatment of Eumycetoma

465

(2)

19.11.1 Phytochemicals with Antimicrobiological Activities Against Eumycetoma

466

(1)

19.12 Specific Medicinal Plants with Promising Activities Against Eumycetoma

467

(1)

19.12.1 Boswellia papyrifera

467

(1)

19.12.2 Nigella sativa L. (Black Cumin)

467

(1)

19.12.3 Moringa oleifera

468

(1)

19.12.4 Acacia nubica

468

(1)

19.13 Antifungal Medicinal Plants That May Help Relieve Eumycetoma

468

(2)

19.14 Novel Approach to Components and Extracts of Antifungal Plants

470

(1)

19.15 Future Prospects

470

(1)

19.16 Conclusion

470

(1)

References

471

(6)

20 Role of Phytochemicals in the Treatment of Ectoparasitic Infections: Scabies and Myiasis

477

(22)

Santwana Palai

Shyam Sundar Kesh

Chinaza Godswill Awuchi

Surajudeen Abiola Abdulrahman

Chukwuebuka Egbuna

20.1 Introduction

477

(1)

20.2 Scabies

478

(1)

20.3 Myiasis

478

(2)

20.4 Treatment and Control of Scabies and Myiasis

480

(13)

20.5 Conclusion

493

(1)

References

493

(6)

Part VII Non Classified NTDs: Malaria and Human Tuberculosis

499

(72)

21 Malaria and Recent Developments in Antimalarial Drugs

501

(42)

Mithun Rudrapal

Dipak Chetia

List of Abbreviations

501

(1)

21.1 Introduction

502

(1)

21.2 Epidemiology of Malaria

503

(1)

21.3 Disease Transmission

504

(2)

21.3.1 Malaria Parasites

505

(1)

21.4 Life Cycle of Plasmodium, Hemoglobin Digestion, and Drug Targets

506

(6)

21.4.1 Life Cycle of Plasmodium

506

(1)

21.4.1.1 Human Liver Stage

506

(1)

21.4.1.2 Human Blood Stage

506

(1)

21.4.1.3 Mosquito Stage

507

(1)

21.4.2 Blood Stages of Plasmodium and Hemoglobin Digestion

508

(1)

21.4.3 Hemoglobin Degradation and Antimalarial Drug Targets

509

(3)

21.5 Malaria Infections, Symptoms, and Pathogenesis

512

(5)

21.5.1 Uncomplicated Malaria

515

(1)

21.5.2 Complicated or Severe Malaria

516

(1)

21.6 Malaria Control and Prevention

517

(2)

21.6.1 Malaria Vaccine

518

(1)

21.7 Treatment of Malaria

519

(10)

21.7.1 Traditional Treatment of Malaria

519

(1)

21.7.2 Current Treatment of Malaria

519

(1)

21.7.2.1 Currently Available Antimalarial Drugs

519

(1)

21.7.2.2 Approaches to Current Antimalarial Treatment

526

(3)

21.8 Antimalarial Drug Resistance

529

(6)

21.8.1 Development and Spread of Resistance

529

(2)

21.8.2 Current Status of Antimalarial Drug Resistance

531

(1)

21.8.3 Mechanism of Drug Resistance

531

(1)

21.8.3.1 CQ and Related Compounds

532

(1)

21.8.3.2 Antifolate Drugs

532

(1)

21.8.3.3 Atovaquone and Artemisinins

533

(1)

21.8.4 Prevention of Drug Resistance

533

(1)

21.8.4.1 Antimalarial CT

533

(2)

21.9 Need for New Antimalarial Drugs

535

(1)

21.10 Antimalarial Drug Discovery

535

(3)

21.10.1 Traditional Approaches

536

(1)

21.10.1.1 Development of New Antimalarial Drugs from Natural Sources

536

(1)

21.10.1.2 Development of New Antimalarial Agents from Synthetic Sources

536

(1)

21.10.2 Modern Approaches

537

(1)

21.11 Conclusion

538

(1)

References

539

(4)

22 Therapeutic Potentials of Phytochemicals Against Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the Causative Agent of Tuberculosis

543

(28)

Alloysius Chibuike Ogodo

Verwiyeh Silas Tatah

Francis Ushie Ebuara

Chidera Favour Ogodo

List of Abbreviations

543

(1)

22.1 Introduction

544

(2)

22.2 Disease Burden of Tuberculosis

546

(1)

22.3 Drugs for Tuberculosis (First- and Second-Line Treatment)

546

(5)

22.3.1 First-Line Antituberculosis Drugs

547

(1)

22.3.1.1 Isoniazid

548

(1)

22.3.1.2 Rifampicin

549

(1)

22.3.1.3 Ethambutol

549

(1)

22.3.1.4 Pyrazinamide

549

(1)

22.3.1.5 Streptomycin

549

(1)

22.3.2 Second-Line Antituberculosis Drugs

550

(1)

22.3.2.1 p-Amino Salicylic Acid

550

(1)

22.3.2.2 Fluoroquinolones

550

(1)

22.3.2.3 Cycloserine

550

(1)

22.3.2.4 Aminoglycosides (Kanamycin, Amikacin, and Capreomycin)

551

(1)

22.3.2.5 Ethionamide/Prothionamide

551

(1)

22.4 The Role of Plants as Antimycobacterial Agents

551

(6)

22.4.1 The Metabolic Role of Plant Extract in Combating Mycobacterium tuberculosis

552

(1)

22.4.2 Global Reports of Plants with Antimycobacterial Potential

553

(1)

22.4.3 Plant Metabolites with Anti-Mycobacterial Activity

553

(4)

22.5 Phytochemicals Against Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis

557

(1)

22.6 Phenolic Compounds as Potential Drugs for Tuberculosis

558

(1)

22.7 Mechanism of Action of Phenolic Compounds Against Mycobacterium

558

(1)

22.8 Future Projections

559

(1)

22.9 Conclusion

559

(1)

References

560

(11)

Index

571

Chukwuebuka Egbuna is a Research Biochemist in the Department of Biochemistry at Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University in Nigeria. He is a reviewer and editorial board member of several journals.

Muhammad Akram, PhD, is Associate Professor in the Department of Eastern Medicine at the Government College University in Faisalabad, Pakistan. He has published numerous scholarly articles and is an editor and reviewer for several national and international journals.

Jonathan Chinenye Ifemeje, PhD, is Professor in the Department of Biochemistry at Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University in Nigeria. He is Managing Editor of the Tropical Journal of Applied Natural Sciences.

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