E-raamat: Optoelectronics and Fiber Optic Technology

Foreword		xiii
Preface		xv
Acknowledgements		xvii
The history of fiber optics		1	(35)
Background		1	(18)
Basic principles of optical line transmission		19	(4)
Advantages of optical fibers and optoelectronic signalling		23	(6)
Immunity to electrical and magnetic fields		24	(1)
Low attenuation		25	(1)
Wide transmission bandwidth		25	(1)
Small physical size and weight		25	(1)
Increased flexibility		26	(1)
Electrical insulation		27	(1)
Immunity to electromagnetic interference and interception		27	(1)
Electrical protection		28	(1)
Analog and digital transmission		28	(1)
Receiver sensitivity		28	(1)
Disadvantages of optical fibers and optoelectronic signalling		29	(3)
Cost		29	(1)
Jointing and test procedures		29	(1)
Tensile stress		30	(1)
Short links		30	(1)
Fiber losses		30	(1)
Other losses		31	(1)
Practical applications of optoelectronics		32	(1)
Telephone networks		32	(1)
Urban broadband service networks		32	(1)
The future of optoelectronics		33	(3)
All-optical network		33	(1)
Computers		34	(1)
Transmission speed		34	(1)
Integration		34	(2)
Theory		36	(40)
Reflection and refraction		38	(1)
Refractive index		39	(1)
Total internal reflection		39	(6)
Snell's law		41	(4)
Angle of incidence		45	(1)
Critical angle		46	(1)
Acceptance cone		47	(1)
Acceptance angle		48	(1)
Numerical aperture		49	(1)
Structure of a fiber		49	(2)
Modes		51	(2)
Multimode step index		51	(1)
Multimode graded index		52	(1)
Single-mode step index		52	(1)
Losses		53	(4)
Attenuation		53	(1)
Absorption		53	(1)
Scattering		54	(1)
Bending losses		55	(2)
Optical power and power density		57	(1)
Optical fiber input power		57	(1)
Dispersion losses		58	(3)
Material dispersion		58	(1)
Waveguide dispersion		58	(1)
Chromatic dispersion		59	(2)
Optical transitions in semiconductors		61	(1)
Semiconductor optical transitional mechanisms		61	(1)
Usable bandwidth of optoelectronic transmission systems		62	(3)
Cut-off frequency of an optical fiber		63	(1)
Fiber bandwidth		63	(2)
Modulation and demodulation of the subcarrier		65	(3)
Modulation techniques		65	(2)
Frequency modulation		67	(1)
Intensity (power) modulation		67	(1)
Signal-to-noise ratio		68	(2)
Optical receiver thermal noise		69	(1)
Quantum noise (of light)		69	(1)
Dark current noise		69	(1)
Laser noise		69	(1)
Mode partition noise		69	(1)
Modal noise (in multimode fibers)		69	(1)
Types of mixers		70	(1)
End fire mixers		70	(1)
Transmissive mixer		71	(1)
Biconical tapered transmissive mixer		71	(1)
Types of multiplexing		71	(5)
Fiber multiplexing		72	(1)
Electrical multiplexing		72	(1)
Wavelength division multiplexing		72	(2)
Dense wavelength division multiplexing		74	(1)
Time division multiplexing		74	(2)
Fibers and cables		76	(30)
Single-mode fiber		77	(2)
Multimode fiber		79	(3)
Multimode step index fiber		79	(2)
Multimode graded index fiber		81	(1)
Manufacturing processes and designs of optical waveguides		82	(3)
Manufacturing techniques		85	(6)
Preparation of the glass preform		85	(1)
Forming the glass rod		85	(5)
Rare earth-doped fibers		90	(1)
Cap sealing		90	(1)
Plastic fiber optic cables		91	(1)
Cable characteristics and specifications		92	(3)
Tensile strength of the cable		93	(1)
Buffered fiber		93	(2)
Types of cable		95	(2)
Tight buffered cable		95	(1)
Loose tube		95	(1)
Slotted core cable		96	(1)
Fiber optic cable ducts		97	(1)
Tube identification		97	(1)
Cable construction		98	(1)
Types of ducted cable		99	(5)
External duct cable		99	(1)
Universal duct cable		100	(1)
Universal ruggedized cable		100	(1)
Water protection		101	(1)
Rodent protection		101	(1)
Metallic armouring		102	(1)
Hazardous environmental cable		103	(1)
Installation possibilities		104	(2)
Training		105	(1)
Transmitters - light emitting diodes and lasers		106	(26)
Light source		106	(1)
Conversion of electrical energy into light waves		106	(1)
Light emitting diodes		107	(4)
LED preparation		110	(1)
Types of LED		111	(5)
Edge emitting diodes		111	(1)
High radiance light emitting diodes		112	(1)
Diffused gallium arsenide LEDs emitting at 900 nm		112	(1)
Aluminium gallium arsenide/gallium arsenide (AlGaAs/GaAs) high radiance LEDs emitting at 830 nm		113	(1)
InGaAsP/InP high radiance LEDs emitting at 1300 nm		114	(1)
Indium phosphide		115	(1)
Laser diodes		116	(8)
Advantages		119	(1)
Disadvantages		120	(2)
Design of a laser diode		122	(2)
Basic differences between gain-guided (current-induced) and index-guided (built-in waveguide) laser diodes		124	(8)
Types of laser diodes		126	(2)
Microdisks		128	(1)
Multiple signalling		129	(3)
Receivers - photodiodes		132	(10)
Conversion of light waves into electrical energy		132	(2)
Design characteristics of an optical receiver		134	(3)
The PIN photodiode		134	(1)
Avalanche photodiodes		135	(1)
Silicon photodiodes		135	(1)
Germanium photodiodes		136	(1)
Indium gallium arsenide photodiodes		137	(1)
Types of receiver		137	(1)
Analog fiber optic receiver		137	(1)
Digital fiber optic receiver		137	(1)
Fiber amplifiers		138	(4)
Laser amplifier repeater		139	(1)
Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers		139	(1)
Erbium-doped fluoride fiber amplifiers		139	(1)
Erbium-doped tellurite fiber amplifiers		140	(1)
Praseodymium-doped fluoride fiber amplifiers		141	(1)
Semiconductor optical amplifier		141	(1)
Connectors and couplers		142	(41)
Connectors		142	(10)
Connector requirements		143	(1)
Quality of the connector		143	(1)
Connector attenuation		144	(1)
Types of connector		145	(7)
Couplers		152	(13)
End fire coupling		153	(1)
Lens coupling		154	(1)
Multiport couplers		154	(4)
Coupling losses		158	(2)
Attaching a fiber to a connector		160	(1)
Connecting an optical fiber cable to an LED		161	(1)
Connecting a fiber cable to an integrated circuit		162	(3)
Fiber jointing techniques		165	(4)
Epoxy splices		166	(1)
Heat-cured epoxy		166	(1)
Room temperature-cured epoxy		167	(1)
Pre-injected epoxy		167	(1)
UV adhesive		167	(1)
Cyanoacrylate adhesive		167	(1)
Anaerobic adhesive		167	(1)
Acrylic adhesive		168	(1)
Crimping		168	(1)
No epoxy and no crimping		169	(1)
Advantages and disadvantages of various types of termination methods		169	(1)
Splicing		169	(14)
Splice losses		169	(2)
Alignment errors during splicing		171	(1)
Mechanical splicing		172	(2)
Fusion splicing		174	(5)
Closures for fiber optic cables		179	(1)
Repeaters and regenerators		180	(3)
Communication systems		183	(33)
Local networks		184	(3)
Long-distance networks		187	(1)
Telephone networks		187	(1)
Data networks		188	(3)
Local area network		189	(1)
Metropolitan area network		189	(2)
Wide area network		191	(1)
Designing an optical fiber cable system		191	(10)
Fiber versus cable		192	(1)
Digital or analog		193	(1)
ATM versus fast Ethernet		194	(1)
Multiplexing		194	(2)
Channel and cable capacity		196	(1)
Fiber loss		196	(1)
Cable routing		197	(4)
Distribution frames		201	(1)
Optical path loss budget		201	(3)
Installation techniques		204	(12)
Storage and handling		205	(1)
Cable laying		206	(3)
Installing fiber optic cables in buildings		209	(2)
Blown optical fiber		211	(5)
Optoelectronic test techniques		216	(17)
Testing fiber optics		216	(3)
Production testing		217	(1)
Installation testing		218	(1)
In-service field testing		219	(1)
Examples of test equipment		219	(14)
Production test kits		220	(1)
Laser light sources		220	(1)
Power meters		221	(1)
Fiber optic tracers		221	(2)
Power and attenuation measuring test sets		223	(1)
Other field testers		224	(1)
Optical time domain reflectometer		225	(5)
Optical fault locator		230	(1)
OFL versus OTDR		231	(1)
Bandwidth measuring test sets		231	(2)
Future developments		233	(30)
The global market		233	(2)
UK market		235	(1)
Development trends		236	(3)
Porous silicon		237	(1)
Ballistic transport		237	(1)
Fluoride glasses		237	(1)
Polarization		238	(1)
Synchronous optical network		238	(1)
Solitron pulses		238	(1)
Lasers and amplifiers		239	(4)
Distributed feedback laser		240	(1)
Tuneable lasers		240	(1)
Rare earth-doped fiber lasers and amplifiers		240	(1)
Modular laser source		241	(2)
Erbium-doped fiber amplifier		243	(1)
Fiber cables		243	(3)
Re-emergence of multimode fibers		243	(1)
Moulded-clad single-mode fibers		243	(1)
Multi-core fibers		243	(1)
Encapsulated fibers		244	(2)
Moveable fibers		246	(1)
Optical bus		246	(1)
Transmission systems		246	(4)
Development trends in higher-order optical fiber transmission systems		246	(1)
Transmitters and receivers		247	(1)
Fiberless transmission		248	(1)
Optical Ether		249	(1)
Optical radio		250	(1)
Industry		250	(3)
Leak detection		250	(1)
Optical fiber drill bit temperature monitor		251	(1)
Optical fiber soldering iron		251	(1)
Optical computing		251	(1)
Optical multiplexers		252	(1)
Opto-isolators		252	(1)
Optoelectronic switches		252	(1)
High speed optical switches		252	(1)
Military		253	(3)
Laser dazzler		253	(1)
Plastic opto-chips		253	(2)
Fiber optic gyroscope		255	(1)
Local government		256	(2)
Optical sensors		256	(1)
Office lighting		256	(1)
Decorations		257	(1)
Fiber optic road signs		257	(1)
Medicine		258	(1)
Lasers - medical uses		258	(1)
Flexible fiber optic curvature sensors		259	(1)
Other possibilities		259	(2)
Internet		259	(1)
Cars and planes		260	(1)
Optical processing and computing		260	(1)
Mining		261	(1)
Conclusion		261	(2)
Appendix A Optoelectronic and fiber optic standards		263	(13)
Appendix B Fiber optic chronology		276	(2)
Glossary		278	(12)
Acronyms and abbreviations		290	(10)
Books by the same author		300	(1)
Useful links		301	(4)
Index		305

Ray Tricker is the Principal Consultant of Herne European Consultancy Ltd - a company specialising in ISO 9000 Management Systems - and is also an established author. He served with the Royal Corps of Signals (for a total of 37 years) during which time he held various managerial posts culminating in being appointed as the Chief Engineer of NATO's Communication Security Agency (ACE COMSEC). Most of Ray's work since joining Herne has centred on the European Railways. He has held a number of posts with the Union International des Chemins de fer (UIC) (e.g. Quality Manager of the European Train Control System (ETCS)) and with the European Union (EU) Commission (e.g. T500 Review Team Leader, European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) Users Group Project Co-ordinator, HEROE Project Co-ordinator) and currently (as well as writing books!) he is busy assisting small businesses from around the world produce their own auditable Quality and/or Integrated Management Systems to meet the requirements of ISO 9001:2008, ISO 14001 and OHSAS standards. He is also a UKAS Assessor for the assessment of certification bodies for the harmonisation of the trans-European high speed railway network.