Preface |
|
xiii | |
Authors |
|
xv | |
Chapter 1 Review of Electromagnetic Radiation |
|
1 | (20) |
|
|
1 | (1) |
|
1.2 Mathematical Description of Waves |
|
|
1 | (1) |
|
|
2 | (1) |
|
1.4 Electromagnetic Waves |
|
|
3 | (1) |
|
|
4 | (2) |
|
|
6 | (1) |
|
1.7 Wave Particle Duality |
|
|
7 | (1) |
|
1.8 Interaction of EM Radiation with Charged Particles |
|
|
8 | (1) |
|
1.9 Complex Number Representation of Waves |
|
|
8 | (1) |
|
1.10 Superposition and Wave Interference |
|
|
9 | (1) |
|
|
10 | (7) |
|
1.11.1 Flux, Flux Density, and Intensity |
|
|
11 | (2) |
|
1.11.2 The Equation of Radiative Transfer |
|
|
13 | (1) |
|
|
14 | (1) |
|
|
14 | (1) |
|
1.11.5 Thermal Equilibrium |
|
|
15 | (1) |
|
1.11.6 Thermal Emission from a Semi-Transparent Region |
|
|
15 | (1) |
|
1.11.7 Transmission of the Earth's Atmosphere |
|
|
16 | (1) |
|
|
17 | (4) |
|
1.12.1 Linear, Circular, and Elliptical Polarisation |
|
|
17 | (2) |
|
|
19 | (2) |
Chapter 2 Astrophysical Radiation |
|
21 | (20) |
|
2.1 Astrophysical Radiation Mechanisms |
|
|
21 | (1) |
|
2.2 Black Body Radiation and the Planck Function |
|
|
21 | (3) |
|
2.2.1 Rayleigh-Jeans and Wien Regions |
|
|
21 | (2) |
|
2.2.2 Wien's Displacement Law |
|
|
23 | (1) |
|
|
24 | (1) |
|
|
24 | (1) |
|
|
24 | (2) |
|
2.4 Non-Thermal Emission Mechanisms: Cyclotron and Synchrotron Radiation |
|
|
26 | (4) |
|
|
30 | (9) |
|
|
30 | (3) |
|
2.5.2 Molecular Vibrational Transitions |
|
|
33 | (2) |
|
2.5.3 Molecular Rotational Transitions |
|
|
35 | (1) |
|
2.5.4 Vibrational-Rotational Transitions |
|
|
35 | (1) |
|
|
36 | (3) |
|
2.5.5.1 Collisional (Pressure) Broadening |
|
|
37 | (1) |
|
2.5.5.2 Thermal (Doppler) Broadening |
|
|
37 | (2) |
|
2.5.6 Spectral Line Databases |
|
|
39 | (1) |
|
2.5.7 γ-Ray Line Emission |
|
|
39 | (1) |
|
2.6 Polarised Radiation in Astronomy |
|
|
39 | (2) |
Chapter 3 Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Matter |
|
41 | (18) |
|
3.1 Radio Wavelengths (γ < ~ 1mm) |
|
|
41 | (5) |
|
3.1.1 The Earth's Ionosphere |
|
|
41 | (2) |
|
|
43 | (2) |
|
3.1.3 Detection of the Intercepted Radiation |
|
|
45 | (1) |
|
3.2 Infrared-Optical-UV Wavelengths (λ=1mm=30nm) |
|
|
46 | (3) |
|
3.2.1 Photon Absorption Mechanisms |
|
|
46 | (1) |
|
3.2.2 Electron Promotion in Semiconductors |
|
|
46 | (2) |
|
3.2.3 The Photoelectric Effect |
|
|
48 | (1) |
|
3.3 X-Ray and γ-Ray Wavelengths |
|
|
49 | (3) |
|
3.3.1 Photoelectric Interaction |
|
|
49 | (1) |
|
|
49 | (2) |
|
3.3.3 Electron-Positron Pair Production |
|
|
51 | (1) |
|
3.3.4 Mass Attenuation Coefficient |
|
|
52 | (1) |
|
3.4 The Effects of the Earth's Atmosphere |
|
|
52 | (7) |
|
3.4.1 Atmospheric Absorption |
|
|
52 | (4) |
|
3.4.2 Atmospheric Emission |
|
|
56 | (1) |
|
3.4.3 Atmospheric Turbulence and Seeing |
|
|
57 | (1) |
|
3.4.4 Earth-Based and Space-Borne Observatories |
|
|
57 | (2) |
Chapter 4 Telescopes and Optical Systems |
|
59 | (26) |
|
|
59 | (1) |
|
4.2 Telescope Configurations |
|
|
59 | (1) |
|
4.3 Telescope Mounting Methods |
|
|
60 | (3) |
|
|
63 | (4) |
|
|
63 | (1) |
|
|
64 | (1) |
|
|
65 | (1) |
|
4.4.4 Telescope Throughput |
|
|
66 | (1) |
|
|
67 | (5) |
|
4.5.1 Spherical Aberration |
|
|
68 | (1) |
|
|
69 | (1) |
|
|
69 | (1) |
|
|
70 | (1) |
|
|
70 | (1) |
|
4.5.6 Chromatic Aberration |
|
|
70 | (2) |
|
|
72 | (6) |
|
4.6.1 The Rayleigh Criterion |
|
|
75 | (1) |
|
4.6.2 Beam Profile or Point Spread Function |
|
|
76 | (2) |
|
|
78 | (1) |
|
|
78 | (4) |
|
4.8 Spatial Interferometry |
|
|
82 | (3) |
Chapter 5 Key Concepts in Astronomical Measurement |
|
85 | (14) |
|
|
85 | (1) |
|
|
85 | (1) |
|
|
85 | (1) |
|
|
86 | (1) |
|
5.5 Response Time (Speed of Response) |
|
|
86 | (2) |
|
|
88 | (1) |
|
5.7 Noise and Signal-to-Noise Ratio |
|
|
89 | (1) |
|
5.8 Electrical Filtering and Integration |
|
|
89 | (1) |
|
|
90 | (1) |
|
|
91 | (1) |
|
|
92 | (1) |
|
5.12 Types of Measurement: Photometry, Spectroscopy, Spectro-photometry |
|
|
92 | (1) |
|
|
93 | (6) |
|
5.13.1 The Stellar Magnitude System |
|
|
93 | (1) |
|
5.13.2 Standard Filter Bands |
|
|
94 | (2) |
|
|
96 | (3) |
Chapter 6 Sensitivity and Noise in Electromagnetic Detection |
|
99 | (24) |
|
|
99 | (1) |
|
6.2 An Ideal Photon Detector |
|
|
99 | (3) |
|
6.3 Noise Equivalent Power |
|
|
102 | (2) |
|
6.3.1 Background-Limited NEP |
|
|
103 | (1) |
|
6.4 Efficiency of Photon Detectors |
|
|
104 | (1) |
|
6.4.1 DQE and NEP of an Imperfectly Absorbing but Noiseless Detector |
|
|
104 | (1) |
|
6.5 Photon Shot Noise and Wave Noise |
|
|
104 | (2) |
|
6.6 Background Photon Noise-Limited NEP of a Broadband Detector |
|
|
106 | (3) |
|
6.6.1 NEPph for a Photon-Counting Detector |
|
|
106 | (2) |
|
6.6.2 NEPph for Broadband Power Detector |
|
|
108 | (1) |
|
6.7 Additional Sources of Noise |
|
|
109 | (6) |
|
6.7.1 Thermal Noise from a Resistor |
|
|
109 | (3) |
|
6.7.2 Electron Shot Noise |
|
|
112 | (1) |
|
6.7.3 Generation-Recombination Noise |
|
|
112 | (1) |
|
|
113 | (1) |
|
|
113 | (1) |
|
|
113 | (1) |
|
|
114 | (1) |
|
|
114 | (1) |
|
6.8 Combination of Noise from Several Sources |
|
|
115 | (1) |
|
6.8.1 Overall Noise and NEP |
|
|
115 | (1) |
|
6.9 Optimising a System for Best Sensitivity |
|
|
116 | (4) |
|
6.9.1 Choosing the Signal Frequency or Frequency Band |
|
|
116 | (1) |
|
6.9.2 Choosing the Post-Detection Bandwidth |
|
|
116 | (3) |
|
6.9.3 Minimising Noise from the Detector and Its Readout and Signal-Processing Electronics |
|
|
119 | (1) |
|
6.10 Noise Equivalent Flux Density |
|
|
120 | (3) |
Chapter 7 Astronomical Spectroscopy |
|
123 | (32) |
|
|
123 | (1) |
|
|
123 | (1) |
|
|
124 | (2) |
|
7.4 Grating Spectrometers |
|
|
126 | (10) |
|
7.4.1 The Grating Equation and Grating Dispersion |
|
|
126 | (2) |
|
7.4.2 Grating Response to a Monochromatic Source |
|
|
128 | (2) |
|
7.4.3 Spectral Resolving Power |
|
|
130 | (1) |
|
7.4.4 Free Spectral Range and Order-Sorting |
|
|
130 | (1) |
|
7.4.5 Effect of Finite Slit Width |
|
|
131 | (1) |
|
7.4.6 Blazed Gratings and Grating Efficiency |
|
|
132 | (1) |
|
7.4.7 Optical Matching between an Astronomical Source and a Grating Spectrometer |
|
|
133 | (2) |
|
7.4.8 The Echelle Spectrograph |
|
|
135 | (1) |
|
|
136 | (1) |
|
7.5 Fabry-Perot (FP) Spectrometers |
|
|
136 | (7) |
|
7.5.1 The Fabry-Perot Interferometer |
|
|
137 | (3) |
|
7.5.2 Free Spectral Range and Resolving Power |
|
|
140 | (1) |
|
7.5.3 Fabry-Perot Spectrometers |
|
|
141 | (1) |
|
7.5.4 Effects of Plate Absorption and Other Imperfections |
|
|
141 | (2) |
|
7.5.5 Rejection of Unwanted Orders |
|
|
143 | (1) |
|
7.6 Fourier Transform Spectrometers |
|
|
143 | (8) |
|
7.6.1 The Michelson Interferometer as a Fourier Transform Spectrometer |
|
|
143 | (4) |
|
|
147 | (1) |
|
7.6.3 Spectral Resolution and the Instrument Response Function |
|
|
148 | (2) |
|
7.6.4 Effect of a Non-Parallel Beam on Spectral Resolving Power |
|
|
150 | (1) |
|
7.6.5 FTS Operation and Data Reduction |
|
|
151 | (1) |
|
7.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Spectrometer Types |
|
|
151 | (1) |
|
7.8 Grating Spectrometer Instruments |
|
|
152 | (3) |
|
7.8.1 Integral Field Units (IFU) and Multi-Object Spectrometers (MOS) |
|
|
152 | (3) |
Chapter 8 Radio Instrumentation |
|
155 | (36) |
|
|
155 | (1) |
|
|
155 | (6) |
|
8.2.1 Antenna Beam Pattern |
|
|
155 | (1) |
|
8.2.2 Gaussian Telescope Illumination |
|
|
156 | (3) |
|
8.2.3 Antenna Efficiencies |
|
|
159 | (2) |
|
|
161 | (10) |
|
8.3.1 Power Received by a Radio Antenna |
|
|
162 | (1) |
|
8.3.2 The Total Power Radiometer |
|
|
162 | (1) |
|
|
163 | (1) |
|
8.3.4 The Superheterodyne Receiver |
|
|
164 | (3) |
|
8.3.5 The Superheterodyne Total Power Receiver |
|
|
167 | (1) |
|
8.3.6 Quantum-Limited System Temperature |
|
|
168 | (1) |
|
8.3.7 Minimum Detectable Temperature and Power |
|
|
169 | (2) |
|
8.4 Mixers and Amplifiers |
|
|
171 | (2) |
|
8.4.1 The Schottky Diode Mixer |
|
|
171 | (1) |
|
8.4.2 Superconductor-Insulator-Superconductor (SIS) Mixers |
|
|
171 | (1) |
|
8.4.3 Hot Electron Bolometer Mixers |
|
|
172 | (1) |
|
8.4.4 High Electron Mobility Transistors |
|
|
172 | (1) |
|
|
173 | (1) |
|
|
174 | (2) |
|
8.6.1 The Multichannel (Filter Bank) Spectrometer |
|
|
174 | (1) |
|
8.6.2 The Acousto-Optic Spectrometer (AOS) |
|
|
175 | (1) |
|
8.6.3 The Digital Autocorrelation Spectrometer |
|
|
175 | (1) |
|
8.6.4 The Direct FFT Spectrometer |
|
|
176 | (1) |
|
|
176 | (2) |
|
8.7.1 Source Antenna Temperature |
|
|
176 | (1) |
|
8.7.2 Sensitivity to a Point Source |
|
|
177 | (1) |
|
8.7.3 Calibration Methods |
|
|
178 | (1) |
|
|
178 | (8) |
|
8.8.1 The Two-Element Radio Interferometer |
|
|
179 | (2) |
|
8.8.2 The Effect of Finite Bandwidth |
|
|
181 | (1) |
|
|
181 | (1) |
|
|
182 | (1) |
|
8.8.5 Interferometer Observation of an Extended Source |
|
|
183 | (1) |
|
8.8.6 The uv Plane and Aperture Synthesis |
|
|
184 | (1) |
|
8.8.7 Interferometer Sensitivity |
|
|
185 | (1) |
|
|
186 | (5) |
|
8.9.1 The 4-mm Receiver on the Green Bank Telescope |
|
|
186 | (1) |
|
8.9.2 The GREAT Spectrometer on Board the SOFIA Airborne Observatory |
|
|
187 | (3) |
|
8.9.3 The MeerKAT Radio Interferometer |
|
|
190 | (1) |
Chapter 9 Far-Infrared to Millimetre Wavelength Instrumentation |
|
191 | (32) |
|
|
191 | (1) |
|
9.2 Direct Detection Instruments |
|
|
191 | (1) |
|
|
192 | (11) |
|
9.3.1 Bolometer Responsivity |
|
|
195 | (1) |
|
9.3.2 Bolometer Time Constant |
|
|
196 | (1) |
|
9.3.3 Bolometer Noise and NEP |
|
|
197 | (1) |
|
9.3.4 Dependence of Achievable Bolometer NEP on Operating Temperature |
|
|
197 | (1) |
|
9.3.5 Semiconductor Bolometers |
|
|
198 | (2) |
|
9.3.6 Semiconductor Bolometer Readout Electronics |
|
|
200 | (1) |
|
|
200 | (2) |
|
9.3.8 TES Bolometer Readout Electronics |
|
|
202 | (1) |
|
9.4 Kinetic Inductance Detectors |
|
|
203 | (1) |
|
9.5 Choice of Bolometric and KID Detectors for the Far Infrared and Submillimetre |
|
|
204 | (1) |
|
9.6 Photoconductive Detectors |
|
|
205 | (6) |
|
|
205 | (2) |
|
|
207 | (1) |
|
|
207 | (1) |
|
|
208 | (1) |
|
9.6.5 Photoconductor Readout Electronics |
|
|
209 | (2) |
|
9.7 Choice of Photoconductors for the Far Infrared |
|
|
211 | (1) |
|
9.8 Coupling FIR and Submillimetre Detector Arrays to the Telescope |
|
|
212 | (4) |
|
9.8.1 Antenna-Coupled Arrays |
|
|
214 | (1) |
|
9.8.2 Absorber-Coupled Arrays |
|
|
214 | (2) |
|
|
216 | (7) |
|
9.9.1 Herschel-SPIRE: A Space-Borne FIR-Submillimetre Camera and Spectrometer |
|
|
216 | (3) |
|
9.9.2 Spitzer-MIPS: A Space-Borne FIR Camera |
|
|
219 | (1) |
|
9.9.3 SCUBA-2: A Ground-Based Submillimetre Camera |
|
|
220 | (3) |
Chapter 10 Infrared to UV Instrumentation |
|
223 | (30) |
|
|
223 | (1) |
|
|
223 | (7) |
|
|
223 | (3) |
|
10.2.2 Infrared Photodiode Materials |
|
|
226 | (1) |
|
10.2.3 Infrared Photodiode Arrays |
|
|
227 | (2) |
|
10.2.4 Blocked Impurity Band (BIB) Photoconductive Detectors |
|
|
229 | (1) |
|
10.3 Optical and UV Detectors |
|
|
230 | (14) |
|
10.3.1 Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) |
|
|
230 | (10) |
|
10.3.1.1 Charge Transfer and Readout |
|
|
231 | (3) |
|
10.3.1.2 Buried Channel CCDs |
|
|
234 | (1) |
|
10.3.1.3 CCD Quantum Efficiency and Spectral Response |
|
|
234 | (2) |
|
|
236 | (2) |
|
10.3.1.5 Charge Multiplying CCDs |
|
|
238 | (1) |
|
10.3.1.6 CCD Performance Parameters |
|
|
238 | (1) |
|
10.3.1.7 Main Advantages of CCDs |
|
|
239 | (1) |
|
|
240 | (1) |
|
10.3.2 The Photomultiplier Tube |
|
|
240 | (2) |
|
10.3.3 The Microchannel Plate |
|
|
242 | (1) |
|
10.3.4 The Avalanche Photodiode |
|
|
243 | (1) |
|
|
244 | (4) |
|
10.4.1 Adaptive Optics Systems |
|
|
246 | (2) |
|
|
248 | (5) |
|
10.5.1 The WFPC 3 Instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope |
|
|
248 | (1) |
|
10.5.2 The K-Band Multi-Object Spectrometer (KMOS) on the ESO-VLT |
|
|
249 | (1) |
|
10.5.3 MICADO - An Imager for the Extremely Large Telescope |
|
|
249 | (4) |
Chapter 11 X-Ray, γ-Ray, and Astro-Particle Detection |
|
253 | (38) |
|
|
253 | (1) |
|
11.2 X-ray CCDs and Fano Noise |
|
|
253 | (3) |
|
11.3 The Proportional Counter |
|
|
256 | (3) |
|
|
259 | (1) |
|
11.5 The X-Ray Calorimeter |
|
|
259 | (2) |
|
11.6 Scintillation Detectors |
|
|
261 | (2) |
|
11.7 Semiconductor Detectors: Silicon, Germanium, and Mercury Cadmium Telluride |
|
|
263 | (2) |
|
11.8 X- and γ-Ray Imaging |
|
|
265 | (8) |
|
11.8.1 Grazing Incidence X-Ray Telescopes |
|
|
265 | (5) |
|
11.8.2 Coded Mask Imaging |
|
|
270 | (1) |
|
11.8.3 The Compton Telescope |
|
|
271 | (1) |
|
11.8.4 Pair Creation Detectors |
|
|
272 | (1) |
|
11.9 High-Energy γ-Ray and Cosmic Ray Detection |
|
|
273 | (3) |
|
11.9.1 Extensive Air Showers |
|
|
273 | (1) |
|
11.9.2 eerenkov Radiation |
|
|
274 | (2) |
|
11.9.3 Extensive Air Shower Observatories |
|
|
276 | (1) |
|
11.10 Cosmic Neutrino Detection |
|
|
276 | (1) |
|
|
277 | (14) |
|
11.11.1 XMM-Newton and Its Instruments |
|
|
277 | (5) |
|
11.11.2 The Swift Satellite and Its Instruments |
|
|
282 | (2) |
|
11.11.3 The Fermi Large Area Telescope |
|
|
284 | (1) |
|
11.11.4 The VERITAS Cerenkov Telescope Array for High-Energy Gamma-Ray Astronomy |
|
|
285 | (3) |
|
11.11.5 The IceCube Neutrino Observatory |
|
|
288 | (3) |
Bibliography |
|
291 | (6) |
Index |
|
297 | |