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E-raamat: Plastics Technology Handbook

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Manas Chanda (Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India)

Formaat: 1044 pages
Sari: Plastics Engineering
Ilmumisaeg: 07-Nov-2017
Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
Keel: eng
ISBN-13: 9781351651929

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Formaat: 1044 pages
Sari: Plastics Engineering
Ilmumisaeg: 07-Nov-2017
Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
Keel: eng
ISBN-13: 9781351651929

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Updated throughout to reflect advances over the last decade, the Fifth Edition continues the handbook’s tradition of authoritative coverage of fundamentals, production methods, properties, and applications of plastics and polymer-based materials. It covers tooling for plastics fabrication processes, thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics, foamed plastics, reinforced plastics, plastisols, and new developments in mold design. It also discusses rubber compounding and processing technologies. More recent developments in polymer fabrication and processing, including electrospinning, electrografted coating, polymer-metal hybrid joining, flex printing, and rapid prototyping/ 3D printing, are also presented. The handbook highlights advanced materials including natural and synthetic nanosize polymers, their unusual properties, and innovative applications, as well as polymer-carbon nanocomposites, graphene-based polymer nanocomposites, smart healable polymer composites, smart polymer coatings, electroactive polymers, polymer nanomaterials, and novel nano-/microfibrillar polymer composites. It offers updates on polymer solar battery development, plastics recycling and disposal methods, new concepts of "upcycling" and single-polymer composites, renewable synthetic polymers, biodegradable plastics and composites, and toxicity of plastics. The book also provides an overview of new developments in polymer applications in various fields including packaging, building and construction, corrosion prevention and control, automotive, aerospace applications, electrical and electronic applications, agriculture and horticulture, domestic appliances and business machines, medical and biomedical applications, marine and offshore applications, and sports.

Arvustused

"The comprehensive coverage of polymer engineering topics makes this text an important go-to source, especially for specialty topics. The text is well organized with extensive references that provide a ready entre into details associated with all topics." Kenneth J. Wynne, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA

"The Plastics Technology Handbook represents the Polymer Bible where you can find the primary information about everything related to polymers. The coverage of the area is unique! If you have any question about polymers please open first this book and thereafter only you can look for a more detailed information in the specific literature. It is hardly possible to formulate a question regarding polymers and not to find its answer in this remarkable Handbook." Stoyko Fakirov, University of Auckland, New Zealand

Preface

xxvii

Author

xxxi

1 Characteristics of Polymers and Polymerization Processes

1.1 What Is a Polymer?

(2)

1.2 Molecular Weight of Polymers

(17)

1.2.1 Number-Average Molecular Weight (Mr,)

(4)

1.2.1.1 End-Group Analysis

(1)

1.2.1.2 Ebulliometry (Boiling-Point Elevation)

(1)

1.2.1.3 Cryoscopy (Freezing-Point Depression)

(1)

1.2.1.4 Membrane Osmometry

(1)

1.2.1.5 Vapor-Phase Osmometry

(2)

1.2.2 Weight-Average Molecular Weight (Mw)

(2)

1.2.2.1 Light-Scattering Method

(2)

1.2.2.2 Low-Angle Laser Light Scattering (LALLS)

(1)

1.2.3 Viscosity-Average Molecular Weight (Mv)

(3)

1.2.3.1 Dilute Solution Viscometry

(2)

1.2.4 Polydispersity Index

(8)

1.2.4.1 Gel Permeation Chromatography

(6)

1.3 Polymerization Reactions

(17)

1.3.1 Addition or Chain Polymerization

(4)

1.3.2 Coordination Addition Polymerization

(4)

1.3.3 Step Polymerization

(6)

1.3.4 Supramolecular Polymerization

(1)

1.3.5 Copolymerization

(2)

1.4 Polymerization Processes

(21)

1.4.1 Process Characteristics

(12)

1.4.1.1 Bulk, Solution, and Suspension Polymerization

(1)

1.4.1.2 Emulsion Polymerization

(4)

1.4.1.3 Microemulsion Polymerization

(6)

1.4.2 Industrial Polymerization

(11)

1.4.2.1 Heat Removal

(1)

1.4.2.2 Reactor Agitation

(1)

1.4.2.3 Residence Time

(1)

1.4.2.4 Industrial Reactors

(7)

1.5 Configurations of Polymer Molecules

(1)

1.6 Conformations of a Polymer Molecule

(2)

1.7 Polymer Crystallinity

(2)

1.7.1 Determinants of Polymer Crystallinity

(2)

1.8 The Amorphous State

(1)

1.9 Structural Shape of Polymer Molecules

(2)

1.10 Thermal Transitions in Polymers

(9)

1.10.1 Tg and Tm

(3)

1.10.2 Regions of Viscoelastic Behavior

(2)

1.10.3 Factors Affecting Tg

(1)

1.10.3.1 Chain Flexibility

(1)

1.10.3.2 Steric Effects

(1)

1.10.3.3 Configurational Effects

(1)

1.10.3.4 Effect of Cross-Linking

(1)

1.10.4 Factors Affecting Tm

(3)

1.10.4.1 Symmetry

(1)

1.10.4.2 Intermolecular Bonding

(1)

1.10.4.3 Tacticity

(1)

1.10.4.4 Branching, Chain Flexibility, and Molecular Weight

(1)

1.10.5 Relation between Tm and Tg

(1)

1.11 Designing a Polymer Structure for Improved Properties

(2)

1.12 Cross-Linking of Polymer Chains

(10)

1.12.1 Reactions of Functional Groups

(2)

1.12.2 Vulcanization

(5)

1.12.3 Radiation Cross-Linking

(1)

1.12.4 Photochemical Cross-Linking

(1)

1.12.5 Ionic Cross-Linking

(1)

1.13 Solubility Behavior of Polymers

(8)

1.13.1 Solubility Parameter

(8)

1.14 Effects of Corrosives on Polymers

(1)

1.15 Thermal Stability and Flame Retardation

(9)

1.15.1 Thermal Degradation

(4)

1.15.2 Ablation

102

(1)

1.15.3 Flame Retardation

103

(1)

1.16 Deterioration of Polymers

103

(4)

1.16.1 Chemical Deterioration

104

(2)

1.16.2 Degradation by Radiation

106

(1)

1.16.3 Microbiological Deterioration

106

(1)

1.17 Stabilization of Polymers

107

(12)

1.17.1 Antioxidants and Related Compounds

109

(1)

1.17.2 Chemical Structures of Antioxidants

110

(1)

1.17.3 Stabilization of Selected Polymers

110

(10)

1.17.3.1 Polypropylene

112

(2)

1.17.3.2 Polyethylene

114

(1)

1.17.3.3 Polystyrene

115

(1)

1.17.3.4 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Copolymers

115

(1)

1.17.3.5 Polycarbonate

115

(1)

1.17.3.6 Nylons

116

(1)

1.17.3.7 Thermoplastic Elastomers

116

(1)

1.17.3.8 Polyacetal

117

(1)

1.17.3.9 Poly(Vinyl Chloride)

117

(1)

1.17.3.10 Rubber

118

(1)

1.18 Metal Deactivators

119

(1)

1.19 Light Stabilizers

120

(8)

1.19.1 Light Stabilizer Classes

121

(7)

1.19.1.1 UV Absorbers

122

(1)

1.19.1.2 Quenchers

123

(1)

1.19.1.3 Hydroperoxide Decomposers

124

(1)

1.19.1.4 Free-Radical Scavengers

124

(4)

1.20 Light Stabilizers for Selected Plastics

128

(3)

1.20.1 Polypropylene

128

(1)

1.20.2 Polyethylene

128

(1)

1.20.3 Styrenic Polymers

129

(1)

1.20.4 Poly(Vinyl Chloride)

130

(1)

1.20.5 Polycarbonate

130

(1)

1.20.6 Polyacrylates

131

(1)

1.20.7 Polyacetal

131

(1)

1.20.8 Polyurethanes

131

(1)

1.20.9 Polyamides

131

(1)

1.21 Diffusion and Permeability

131

(2)

1.21.1 Diffusion

132

(1)

1.21.2 Permeability

132

(1)

1.22 Polymer Compounding

133

(4)

1.22.1 Fillers

135

(2)

1.23 Plasticizers

137

(5)

1.23.1 Phthalic Acid Esters

139

(1)

1.23.2 Phosphoric Acid Esters

140

(1)

1.23.3 Fatty Acid Esters

140

(1)

1.23.4 Polymeric Plasticizers

141

(1)

1.23.5 Miscellaneous Plasticizers

142

(1)

1.24 Antistatic Agents

142

(5)

1.24.1 External Antistatic Agents

143

(1)

1.24.2 Internal Antistatic Agents

144

(1)

1.24.3 Chemical Composition of Antistatic Agents

144

(3)

1.24.3.1 Antistatic Agents Containing Nitrogen

144

(2)

1.24.3.2 Antistatic Agents Containing Phosphorus

146

(1)

1.24.3.3 Antistatic Agents Containing Sulfur

146

(1)

1.24.3.4 Betaine-Type Antistatic Agents

147

(1)

1.24.3.5 Nonionic Antistatic Agents

147

(1)

1.25 Flame Retardants

147

(4)

1.25.1 Halogen Compounds

148

(1)

1.25.2 Phosphorus Compounds

149

(1)

1.25.3 Halogen-Antimony Synergetic Mixtures

149

(1)

1.25.4 Intumescent Flame Retardants

150

(1)

1.26 Smoke Suppressants

151

(1)

1.27 Colorants

151

(1)

1.28 Antimicrobials

152

(1)

1.29 Toxicity of Plastics

152

(5)

1.29.1 Plastic Devices in Pharmacy and Medicine

153

(2)

1.29.1.1 Packing

153

(1)

1.29.1.2 Tubings and Blood Bag Assemblies

153

(1)

1.29.1.3 Implants

154

(1)

1.29.1.4 Adhesives

154

(1)

1.29.1.5 Dental Materials

154

(1)

1.29.1.6 Nanomedicines and Drug Delivery

155

(1)

1.29.2 Biodegradable Plastics and Bioplastics

155

(1)

1.29.3 Oxo-Biodegradable Plastics

156

(1)

1.29.4 Toxicity of Plastic Combustion Products

157

(1)

1.29.5 Toxicity Testing

157

(1)

References

157

(4)

2 Fabrication Processes

2.1 Types of Processes

161

(1)

2.2 Tooling for Plastics Processing

161

(3)

2.2.1 Types of Molds

162

(1)

2.2.2 Types of Dies

162

(1)

2.2.3 Tool Design

163

(1)

2.3 Compression Molding

164

(2)

2.3.1 Open Flash

165

(1)

2.3.2 Fully Positive

165

(1)

2.3.3 Semipositive

165

(1)

2.3.4 Process Applicability

165

(1)

2.4 Transfer Molding

166

(4)

2.4.1 Ejection of Molding

168

(1)

2.4.2 Heating System

168

(1)

2.4.3 Types of Presses

169

(1)

2.4.4 Preheating

169

(1)

2.4.5 Preforming

170

(1)

2.4.6 Flash Removal

170

(1)

2.5 Injection Molding of Thermoplastics

170

(12)

2.5.1 Types of Injection Units

171

(1)

2.5.2 Clamping Units

172

(1)

2.5.3 Molds

173

(7)

2.5.3.1 Mold Designs

173

(2)

2.5.3.2 Number of Mold Cavities

175

(1)

2.5.3.3 Runners

175

(1)

2.5.3.4 Gating

176

(2)

2.5.3.5 Valve Gates

178

(1)

2.5.3.6 Venting

179

(1)

2.5.3.7 Parting Line

179

(1)

2.5.3.8 Cooling

179

(1)

2.5.3.9 Ejection

180

(1)

2.5.3.10 Standard Mold Bases

180

(1)

2.5.4 Structural Foam Injection Molding

180

(1)

2.5.5 Co-Injection (Sandwich) Molding

180

(1)

2.5.6 Gas-Assisted Injection Molding

181

(1)

2.6 Injection Molding of Thermosetting Resins

182

(3)

2.6.1 Screw-Injection Molding of Thermosetting Resins

182

(3)

2.7 Extrusion

185

(11)

2.7.1 Extruder Capacity

186

(1)

2.7.2 Extruder Design and Operation

186

(3)

2.7.2.1 Typical Screw Construction

186

(1)

2.7.2.2 Screw Zones

187

(1)

2.7.2.3 Motor Drive

187

(1)

2.7.2.4 Heating

187

(1)

2.7.2.5 Screw Design

188

(1)

2.7.3 Multiple-Screw Extruders

189

(1)

2.7.4 Blown-Film Extrusion

190

(2)

2.7.5 Flat Film or Sheet Extrusion

192

(2)

2.7.6 Pipe or Tube Extrusion

194

(1)

2.7.7 Wire and Cable Coverings

195

(1)

2.7.8 Extrusion Coating

195

(1)

2.7.9 Profile Extrusion

196

(1)

2.8 Blow Molding

196

(3)

2.8.1 Extrusion Blow Molding

197

(1)

2.8.2 Injection Blow Molding

198

(1)

2.8.3 Blow Molds

198

(1)

2.9 Calendering

199

(1)

2.10 Spinning of Fibers

200

(4)

2.10.1 Melt Spinning

202

(1)

2.10.2 Dry Spinning

202

(1)

2.10.3 Wet Spinning

202

(2)

2.10.4 Cold Drawing of Fibers

204

(1)

2.11 Electrospinning of Polymer Nanofibers

204

(4)

2.12 Thermoforming

208

(2)

2.12.1 Vacuum Forming

208

(1)

2.12.2 Pressure Forming

209

(1)

2.12.3 Mechanical Forming

210

(1)

2.13 Casting Processes

210

(3)

2.13.1 Simple Casting

210

(1)

2.13.2 Plastisol Casting

210

(3)

2.13.2.1 Dip Casting

212

(1)

2.13.2.2 Slush Casting

212

(1)

2.13.2.3 Rotational Casting

213

(1)

2.14 Reinforcing Processes

213

(24)

2.14.1 Molding Methods

214

(9)

2.14.1.1 Hand Lay-Up or Contact Molding

214

(1)

2.14.1.2 Spray-Up

215

(1)

2.14.1.3 Matched Metal Molding

215

(1)

2.14.1.4 Vacuum-Bag Molding

216

(1)

2.14.1.5 Pressure-Bag Molding

216

(1)

2.14.1.6 Filament Winding

217

(1)

2.14.1.7 Pultrusion

218

(2)

2.14.1.8 Prepreg Molding

220

(3)

2.14.2 Fibrous Reinforcements

223

(14)

2.14.2.1 Glass Fibers

223

(1)

2.14.2.2 Graphite/Carbon Fibers, the Beginning

224

(1)

2.14.2.3 Manufacture of Graphite (Carbon) Fibers

225

(2)

2.14.2.4 Graphite/Carbon Fibers and Fabrics

227

(2)

2.14.2.5 Graphite/Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Plastics

229

(1)

2.14.2.6 Manufacture of CFRP Parts

230

(1)

2.14.2.7 Applications of CFRP Products

231

(3)

2.14.2.8 Aramid Fibers

234

(1)

2.14.2.9 Applications

235

(1)

2.14.2.10 Extended-Chain Polyethylene Fibers

235

(2)

2.15 Reaction Injection Molding

237

(3)

2.15.1 Machinery

238

(1)

2.15.2 Polyurethanes

239

(1)

2.15.3 Nylons

239

(1)

2.16 Structural Reaction Injection Molding

240

(1)

2.16.1 Applications

241

(1)

2.17 Resin Transfer Molding

241

(1)

2.18 Foaming Processes

242

(21)

2.18.1 Rigid Foam Blowing Agents

244

(1)

2.18.2 Polystyrene Foams

244

(2)

2.18.2.1 Extruded Polystyrene Foam

244

(1)

2.18.2.2 Expandable Polystyrene

245

(1)

2.18.2.3 Structural Foams

246

(1)

2.18.3 Polyolefin Foams

246

(5)

2.18.4 Polyurethane Foams

251

(4)

2.18.4.1 Flexible Polyurethane Foams

251

(3)

2.18.4.2 Rigid and Semirigid Foams

254

(1)

2.18.5 Foamed Rubber

255

(1)

2.18.6 Epoxy Resins

255

(1)

2.18.7 Urea-Formaldehyde Foams

256

(1)

2.18.8 Silicone Foams

257

(1)

2.18.9 Phenolic Foams

258

(1)

2.18.10 Poly(Vinyl Chloride) Foams

258

(3)

2.18.11 Special Foams

261

(2)

2.19 Rapid Prototyping/3D Printing

263

(2)

2.20 Rubber Compounding and Processing Technology

265

(13)

2.20.1 Compounding Ingredients

265

(5)

2.20.1.1 Processing Aids

268

(1)

2.20.1.2 Fillers

269

(1)

2.20.2 Mastication and Mixing

270

(2)

2.20.2.1 Open Mill

270

(1)

2.20.2.2 Internal Batch Mixers

271

(1)

2.20.3 Reclaimed Rubber

272

(2)

2.20.4 Some Major Rubber Products

274

(4)

2.20.4.1 Tires

274

(2)

2.20.4.2 Belting and Hoses

276

(2)

2.20.4.3 Cellular Rubber Products

278

(1)

2.21 Miscellaneous Processing Techniques

278

(21)

2.21.1 Coating Processes

278

(9)

2.21.1.1 Fluidized Bed Coating

279

(1)

2.21.1.2 Spray Coating

280

(1)

2.21.1.3 Electrostatic Spraying

280

(1)

2.21.1.4 Smart Coatings

281

(4)

2.21.1.5 Electrografted Coatings

285

(2)

2.21.2 Powder Molding of Thermoplastics

287

(1)

2.21.2.1 Static (Sinter) Molding

287

(1)

2.21.2.2 Rotational Molding

287

(1)

2.21.2.3 Centrifugal Casting

288

(1)

2.21.3 Adhesive Bonding of Plastics

288

(6)

2.21.3.1 Solvent Cementing

289

(1)

2.21.3.2 Adhesive Bonding

289

(3)

2.21.3.3 Joining of Specific Plastics

292

(2)

2.21.4 Welding

294

(2)

2.21.4.1 Hot-Gas Welding

295

(1)

2.21.4.2 Fusion Welding

295

(1)

2.21.4.3 Friction Welding

295

(1)

2.21.4.4 High-Frequency Welding

295

(1)

2.21.4.5 Ultrasonic Welding

296

(1)

2.21.5 Joining Polymer-Metal Hybrids

296

(3)

2.22 Decoration of Plastics

299

(5)

2.22.1 Painting

299

(1)

2.22.2 Printing

300

(1)

2.22.2.1 Gravure Printing

300

(1)

2.22.2.2 Flexography

300

(1)

2.22.2.3 Screen Process Printing

300

(1)

2.22.2.4 Pad Printing

301

(1)

2.22.2.5 Flex Printing

301

(1)

2.22.3 Hot Stamping

301

(1)

2.22.4 In-Mold Decorating

302

(1)

2.22.5 Embossing

302

(1)

2.22.6 Electroplating

303

(1)

2.22.7 Vacuum Metallizing

303

(1)

References

304

(3)

3 Plastics Properties and Testing

3.1 Introduction

307

(1)

3.2 Mechanical Properties

307

(1)

3.2.1 Stress and Strain

308

(2)

3.2.2 Stress-Strain Behavior

310

(3)

3.2.3 Viscoelastic Behavior of Plastics

313

(1)

3.2.3.1 Modulus and Compliance

313

(1)

3.2.4 Stress-Strain-Time Behavior

314

(3)

3.2.4.1 The WLF Equations

316

(1)

3.2.5 Creep Behavior

317

(1)

3.2.6 Maxwell Model

318

(4)

3.2.6.1 Stress-Strain Relation

318

(2)

3.2.6.2 Generalized Maxwell Model

320

(2)

3.2.7 Kelvin or Voigt Model

322

(2)

3.2.7.1 Stress-Strain Relation

322

(2)

3.2.8 Four-Element Model

324

(1)

3.2.9 Zener Model

325

(1)

3.2.10 Superposition Principle

326

(1)

3.2.11 Isometric and Isochronous Curves

327

(1)

3.2.12 Pseudoelastic Design Method

328

(2)

3.2.13 Effect of Temperature

330

(1)

3.2.14 Time-Temperature Superposition

331

(2)

3.2.15 Dynamic Mechanical Properties

333

(1)

3.2.16 Rheological Behavior

334

(7)

3.2.16.1 Classification of Fluid Behavior

335

(3)

3.2.16.2 Effect of Shear Rate on Viscosity

338

(1)

3.2.16.3 Effect of Molecular Weight on Viscosity

338

(1)

3.2.16.4 Effect of Temperature on Polymer Viscosity

339

(1)

3.2.16.5 Effect of Pressure on Viscosity

340

(1)

3.2.16.6 Weissenberg Effects

340

(1)

3.2.16.7 Irregular Flow or Melt Fracture

340

(1)

3.2.17 Measurement of Viscosity

341

(3)

3.2.17.1 Rotational Viscometers

342

(1)

3.2.17.2 Capillary Rheometers

343

(1)

3.2.18 Plastics Fractures

344

(1)

3.2.19 Impact Behavior of Plastics

345

(3)

3.2.20 Fatigue of Plastics

348

(3)

3.2.21 Hardness

351

(1)

3.2.22 Indentation Hardness

351

(3)

3.2.22.1 Brinell Hardness Number

351

(1)

3.2.22.2 Vickers Hardness Number

351

(1)

3.2.22.3 Knoop Hardness Number

352

(1)

3.2.22.4 Rockwell Hardness Number

352

(1)

3.2.22.5 Barcol Hardness

352

(1)

3.2.22.6 Durometer Hardness

353

(1)

3.2.23 Rebound Hardness

354

(1)

3.2.24 Scratch Hardness

355

(1)

3.2.25 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Polymers

356

(1)

3.3 Reinforced Plastics

356

(10)

3.3.1 Types of Reinforcement

356

(1)

3.3.2 Types of Matrix

357

(1)

3.3.3 Analysis of Reinforced Plastics

357

(7)

3.3.3.1 Continuous Fibers

357

(3)

3.3.3.2 Discontinuous Fibers

360

(2)

3.3.3.3 Fiber Length Less than lc

362

(1)

3.3.3.4 Fiber Length Equal to lc

363

(1)

3.3.3.5 Fiber Length Greater than lc

363

(1)

3.3.4 Deformation Behavior of Fiber-Reinforced Plastic

364

(1)

3.3.5 Fracture of Fiber-Reinforced Plastics

365

(1)

3.3.5.1 Tension

365

(1)

3.3.5.2 Compression

365

(1)

3.3.5.3 Flexure or Shear

366

(1)

3.3.6 Fatigue Behavior of Reinforced Plastics

366

(1)

3.3.7 Impact Behavior of Reinforced Plastics

366

(1)

3.4 Electrical Properties

366

(11)

3.4.1 Dielectric Strength

367

(1)

3.4.2 Insulation Resistance

368

(1)

3.4.3 Arc Resistance

369

(1)

3.4.4 Dielectric Constant

370

(7)

3.4.4.1 Polarization and Dipole Moment

372

(2)

3.4.4.2 Dielectric Constant versus Frequency

374

(1)

3.4.4.3 Dielectric Constant versus Temperature

374

(1)

3.4.4.4 Dielectric Losses

375

(1)

3.4.4.5 Dielectric Losses of Polar Polymers

376

(1)

3.5 Optical Properties

377

(4)

3.5.1 Optical Clarity

377

(1)

3.5.2 Index of Refraction

378

(2)

3.5.3 Piped Lighting Effect

380

(1)

3.5.4 Stress-Optical Characteristics

380

(1)

3.6 Thermal Properties

381

(3)

3.6.1 Specific Heat

381

(1)

3.6.2 Thermal Expansion

382

(1)

3.6.3 Thermal Conductivity

382

(1)

3.6.4 Transition Temperatures and Temperature Limitations

383

(1)

3.6.5 Standard Properties of Plastics

384

(1)

3.7 Identification of Common Plastics

384

(18)

3.7.1 Behaviors on Heating and Ignition

394

(1)

3.7.2 Tests for Characteristic Elements

395

(2)

3.7.3 Specific Tests

397

(5)

3.8 Plastics Analysis by Instrumental Methods

402

(28)

3.8.1 IR Spectroscopy

402

(15)

3.8.1.1 Methods of Measurement

403

(1)

3.8.1.2 Instruments

404

(1)

3.8.1.3 Sample Preparation

404

(2)

3.8.1.4 Fourier Transform IR Spectroscopy

406

(1)

3.8.1.5 Qualitative Analysis

407

(8)

3.8.1.6 Quantitative Analysis

415

(2)

3.8.2 NMR Spectroscopy

417

(17)

3.8.2.1 General Principles

418

(3)

3.8.2.2 Chemical Shift

421

(2)

3.8.2.3 Shielding Mechanisms

423

(3)

3.8.2.4 Spin-Spin Coupling

426

(1)

3.8.2.5 Applications in Polymer Analysis

426

(4)

References

430

(3)

4 Industrial Polymers

4.1 Introduction

433

(1)

4.2 Part I: Addition Polymers

434

(52)

4.2.1 Polyolefins

435

(29)

4.2.1.1 Polyethylene

435

(5)

4.2.1.2 Polypropylene

440

(7)

4.2.1.3 Polyallomer

447

(1)

4.2.1.4 Poly(Vinyl Chloride)

448

(8)

4.2.1.5 Poly(Vinylidene Chloride)

456

(1)

4.2.1.6 Polytetrafluoroethylene and Other Fluoropolymers

457

(4)

4.2.1.7 Polyisobutylene

461

(1)

4.2.1.8 Polystyrene

462

(1)

4.2.1.9 Polybutadiene (Butadiene Rubber)

463

(1)

4.2.1.10 Polyisoprene

463

(1)

4.2.1.11 Polychloroprene

464

(1)

4.2.2 Olefin Copolymers

464

(11)

4.2.2.1 Styrene-Butadiene Rubber

464

(1)

4.2.2.2 Nitrile Rubber

465

(1)

4.2.2.3 Ethylene-Propylene Elastomer

465

(2)

4.2.2.4 Butyl Rubber

467

(1)

4.2.2.5 Thermoplastic Elastomers

467

(3)

4.2.2.6 Fluoroelastomers

470

(2)

4.2.2.7 Styrene-Acrylonitrile Copolymer

472

(1)

4.2.2.8 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Terpolymer

472

(2)

4.2.2.9 Ethylene-Methacrylic Acid Copolymers (Ionomers)

474

(1)

4.2.3 Acrylics

475

(7)

4.2.3.1 Polyacrylonitrile

475

(1)

4.2.3.2 Polyacrylates

476

(1)

4.2.3.3 Polymethacrylates

477

(2)

4.2.3.4 Polyacrylamide

479

(1)

4.2.3.5 Poly(Acrylic Acid) and Poly(Methacrylic Acid)

480

(1)

4.2.3.6 Acrylic Adhesives

481

(1)

4.2.4 Vinyl Polymers

482

(4)

4.2.4.1 Poly(Vinyl Acetate)

482

(1)

4.2.4.2 Poly(Vinyl Alcohol)

483

(1)

4.2.4.3 Poly(Vinyl Acetals)

484

(1)

4.2.4.4 Poly(Vinyl Cinnamate)

485

(1)

4.2.4.5 Poly(Vinyl Ethers)

485

(1)

4.2.4.6 Poly(Vinyl Pyrrolidone)

486

(1)

4.2.4.7 Poly(Vinyl Carbazole)

486

(1)

4.3 Part II: Condensation Polymers

486

(104)

4.3.1 Polyesters

487

(16)

4.3.1.1 Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate)

487

(1)

4.3.1.2 Poly(Butylene Terephthalate)

488

(2)

4.3.1.3 Poly(Dihydroxymethylcyclohexyl Terephthalate)

490

(1)

4.3.1.4 Unsaturated Polyesters

491

(6)

4.3.1.5 Aromatic Polyesters

497

(2)

4.3.1.6 Wholly Aromatic Copolyester

499

(1)

4.3.1.7 Polycarbonates

500

(3)

4.3.2 Polyamides

503

(16)

4.3.2.1 Aliphatic Polyamides

503

(8)

4.3.2.2 Aromatic Polyamides

511

(2)

4.3.2.3 Polyimides

513

(6)

4.3.3 Formaldehyde Resins

519

(10)

4.3.3.1 Phenol-Formaldehyde Resins

519

(5)

4.3.3.2 Urea-Formaldehyde Resins

524

(3)

4.3.3.3 Melamine-Formaldehyde Resins

527

(2)

4.3.4 Polyurethanes

529

(8)

4.3.4.1 Polyurethane Rubbers and Spandex Fibers

529

(5)

4.3.4.2 Flexible Polyurethane Foam

534

(1)

4.3.4.3 Rigid and Semirigid Polyurethane Foams

535

(1)

4.3.4.4 Polyurethane Coatings

536

(1)

4.3.5 Ether Polymers

537

(22)

4.3.5.1 Polyacetal

538

(2)

4.3.5.2 Poly(Ethylene Oxide)

540

(1)

4.3.5.3 Applications

541

(3)

4.3.5.4 Poly(Propylene Oxide)

544

(1)

4.3.5.5 Epoxy Resins

545

(12)

4.3.5.6 Poly(Phenylene Oxide)

557

(2)

4.3.6 Cellulosic Polymers

559

(4)

4.3.6.1 Regenerated Cellulose

560

(1)

4.3.6.2 Cellulose Nitrate

560

(1)

4.3.6.3 Cellulose Acetate

561

(1)

4.3.6.4 Other Cellulose Esters

562

(1)

4.3.6.5 Cellulose Ethers

562

(1)

4.3.7 Sulfide Polymers

563

(2)

4.3.7.1 Polysulfides

563

(1)

4.3.7.2 Poly(Phenylene Sulfide)

564

(1)

4.3.8 Polysulfones

565

(2)

4.3.8.1 Properties

566

(1)

4.3.9 Polyether Ketones

567

(2)

4.3.10 Polybenzimidazole

569

(1)

4.3.11 Silicones and Other Inorganic Polymers

570

(7)

4.3.11.1 Silicones

570

(6)

4.3.11.2 Polyphosphazenes

576

(1)

4.3.11.3 Polythiazyl

577

(1)

4.3.12 Polyblends

577

(10)

4.3.12.1 Prediction of Polyblend Properties

581

(1)

4.3.12.2 Selection of Blend Components

582

(2)

4.3.12.3 Compatibilization of Polymers

584

(2)

4.3.12.4 Industrial Polyblends

586

(1)

4.3.12.5 Nanoblends

586

(1)

4.3.13 Interpenetrating Polymer Networks

587

(6)

4.3.13.1 Industrial IPNs

589

(1)

References

590

(3)

5 Polymers in Special Uses

5.1 Introduction

593

(1)

5.2 High-Temperature and Fire-Resistant Polymers

593

(4)

5.2.1 Temperature-Resistant Polymers

594

(2)

5.2.2 Fire-Resistant Polymers

596

(1)

5.3 Liquid Crystal Polymers

597

(14)

5.3.1 Thermotropic Main-Chain Liquid Crystal Polymers

603

(2)

5.3.2 Side-Chain Liquid Crystal Polymers

605

(1)

5.3.3 Chiral Nematic Liquid Crystal Polymers

606

(3)

5.3.4 Properties of Commercial LCPs

609

(2)

5.3.5 Applications

611

(1)

5.4 Conductive Polymers

611

(25)

5.4.1 Filled Polymers

612

(6)

5.4.1.1 EMI Shielding

614

(2)

5.4.1.2 Conductive Coating

616

(1)

5.4.1.3 Signature Materials

617

(1)

5.4.2 Inherently Conductive Polymers

618

(17)

5.4.2.1 Doping

620

(5)

5.4.2.2 Conducting Mechanisms

625

(2)

5.4.2.3 Applications

627

(8)

5.4.3 Photoconductive Polymers

635

(1)

5.5 Electroactive Polymers

636

(8)

5.5.1 Ionic EAPs

636

(4)

5.5.1.1 Polymer-Metal Composites

636

(1)

5.5.1.2 Ionic Polymer Gels

637

(1)

5.5.1.3 Carbon Nanotubes

637

(2)

5.5.1.4 Conductive Polymers

639

(1)

5.5.2 Electronic EAPs

640

(10)

5.5.2.1 Ferroelectric Polymers

640

(1)

5.5.2.2 Polymer Electrets

640

(1)

5.5.2.3 Electrostrictive Polymers

641

(1)

5.5.2.4 Dielectric Elastomers

642

(2)

5.6 Polymers in Fiber Optics

644

(4)

5.7 Polymers in Nonlinear Optics

648

(1)

5.8 Langmuir-Blodgett Films

648

(2)

5.9 Piezo-and Pyroelectric Polymers

650

(3)

5.9.1 Applications

651

(2)

5.10 Polymeric Electrolytes

653

(3)

5.11 Polymers in Photoresist Applications

656

(13)

5.11.1 Negative Photoresists

659

(2)

5.11.2 Positive Photoresists

661

(6)

5.11.2.1 Near-UV Application

661

(2)

5.11.2.2 Mid-and Deep-UV Photoresists

663

(4)

5.11.3 Electron Beam Resists

667

(1)

5.11.4 Plasma-Developable Photoresists

667

(2)

5.12 Photoresist Applications for Printing

669

(3)

5.12.1 Printing Plates

669

(2)

5.12.1.1 Relief or Raised-Image Plates

669

(1)

5.12.1.2 Photolithography/Planographic Plates

670

(1)

5.12.1.3 Photogravure

670

(1)

5.12.2 Photoengraving

671

(1)

5.12.3 Printed Circuits

671

(1)

5.12.4 Collotype and Proofing Systems

671

(1)

5.13 Optical Information Storage

672

(1)

5.14 Polymers in Adhesives

673

(5)

5.14.1 Solvent-Based Adhesives

674

(1)

5.14.2 Water-Based Adhesives

675

(1)

5.14.3 Hot Melt Adhesives

676

(1)

5.14.4 Radiation-Curable Adhesives

677

(1)

5.15 Degradable Polymers

678

(7)

5.15.1 Packaging Applications

679

(1)

5.15.2 Medical and Related Applications

680

(5)

5.15.2.1 Synthetic Polymers

680

(2)

5.15.2.2 Controlled Release Agents

682

(1)

5.15.2.3 Tissue Engineering

683

(2)

5.16 Ionic Polymers

685

(22)

5.16.1 Physical Properties and Applications

686

(5)

5.16.1.1 Ionic Cross-Linking

686

(1)

5.16.1.2 Ion-Exchange

687

(2)

5.16.1.3 Hydrophilicity

689

(2)

5.16.2 Ionomers

691

(6)

5.16.2.1 Polyethylene Ionomers

691

(3)

5.16.2.2 Elastomeric Ionomers

694

(1)

5.16.2.3 Ionomers Based on Polytetrafluoroethylene

695

(1)

5.16.2.4 Ionomers Based on Polysulfones

696

(1)

5.16.3 Polyelectrolytes

697

(10)

5.16.3.1 Ion-Exchangers

697

(8)

5.16.3.2 Polycarboxylates

705

(1)

5.16.3.3 Integral Polyelectrolytes

706

(1)

5.17 Synthetic Polymer Membranes

707

(7)

5.17.1 Membrane Preparation

707

(5)

5.17.1.1 Wet-Extrusion Process

708

(1)

5.17.1.2 Hollow Fiber Membranes

709

(3)

5.17.2 Membrane Modules

712

(1)

5.17.3 Applications

713

(1)

5.18 Hydrogels and Smart Polymers

714

(8)

5.18.1 Smart Polymers

716

(6)

5.19 Dendritic Polymers

722

(3)

5.19.1 Applications

724

(1)

5.20 Shape Memory Polymers

725

(2)

5.21 Microencapsulation

727

(10)

5.21.1 Processes for Microencapsulation

728

(7)

5.21.1.1 Complex Coacervation

728

(1)

5.21.1.2 Polymer-Polymer Incompatibility

729

(1)

5.21.1.3 Interfacial and In Situ Polymerization

729

(4)

5.21.1.4 Spray Drying

733

(1)

5.21.1.5 Fluidized-Bed Coating

733

(1)

5.21.1.6 Co-Extrusion Capsule Formation

734

(1)

5.21.1.7 Other Processes

734

(1)

5.21.2 Applications

735

(2)

5.22 Nanosize Polymers

737

(5)

5.22.1 Polymer Nanoparticles

737

(1)

5.22.2 Polymer Nanospheres

738

(1)

5.22.3 Polymer Nanofibers

739

(1)

5.22.4 Polymer Nanowires, Nanotubes, and Nanorods

740

(2)

5.23 Polymer Nanocomposites

742

(1)

5.24 Polymer-Clay Nanocomposites

743

(3)

5.25 Polymer-Carbon Nanocomposites

746

(18)

5.25.1 Graphite-Based PNCs

747

(1)

5.25.2 CNT-Based PNCs

747

(6)

5.25.2.1 Nanotube Functionalization

747

(1)

5.25.2.2 Nanocomposite Fabrication Methods

748

(2)

5.25.2.3 Nanotube Alignment in Composites

750

(1)

5.25.2.4 Properties of Nanocomposites

751

(2)

5.25.3 Graphene-Based PNCs

753

(11)

5.25.3.1 Technical Production of Graphene

754

(6)

5.25.3.2 Preparation of Nanocomposites

760

(2)

5.25.3.3 Properties of Graphene-PNCs

762

(2)

5.26 Microfibrillar/Nanofibrillar Polymer Composites

764

(10)

5.26.1 Microfibrillar/Nanofibrillar Polymer-Polymer Composites

765

(5)

5.26.1.1 Manufacturing Steps

766

(2)

5.26.1.2 Properties and Applications

768

(2)

5.26.2 Microfibrillar/Nanofibrillar SPCs

770

(4)

5.26.2.1 Manufacturing Steps

770

(1)

5.26.2.2 Properties and Applications

771

(3)

5.27 Wood-Polymer Composites

774

(7)

5.27.1 WPC Feedstocks

775

(1)

5.27.1.1 Wood

775

(1)

5.27.1.2 Plastics

775

(1)

5.27.1.3 Compounded Pellets

776

(1)

5.27.1.4 Additives

776

(1)

5.27.2 Manufacture of WPC Products

776

(3)

5.27.2.1 Compounding

777

(1)

5.27.2.2 Extrusion

777

(2)

5.27.3 Properties of WPC Products

779

(1)

5.27.4 Applications of WPC Products

780

(1)

References

781

(14)

6 Recycling and Disposal of Waste Plastics

6.1 Introduction

795

(4)

6.2 Outline of Recycling Methods

799

(5)

6.3 Recycling of Poly (Ethylene Terephthalate)

804

(7)

6.3.1 Direct Reuse

804

(2)

6.3.2 Reuse after Modification

806

(4)

6.3.2.1 Glycolysis

806

(2)

6.3.2.2 Methanolysis

808

(1)

6.3.2.3 Ammonolysis

808

(1)

6.3.2.4 Hydrolysis

809

(1)

6.3.2.5 Depolymerization in Supercritical Fluids

809

(1)

6.3.2.6 Enzymatic Depolymerization

810

(1)

6.3.3 Incineration

810

(1)

6.4 Recycling of Polyurethanes

811

(4)

6.4.1 Thermopressing Process

811

(1)

6.4.2 Kneader Process

812

(1)

6.4.3 Hydrolysis

812

(3)

6.4.3.1 Glycolysis

813

(1)

6.4.3.2 Ammonolysis

813

(2)

6.5 Recycling of Poly (Vinyl Chloride)

815

(5)

6.5.1 Characterization of Used PVC

816

(1)

6.5.2 In-Line PVC Scrap

816

(2)

6.5.3 PVC Floor Coverings

818

(1)

6.5.4 PVC Roofing Sheets

818

(1)

6.5.5 Post-Consumer PVC

819

(1)

6.5.6 Vinyloop and Texyloop Processes

819

(1)

6.6 Recycling of Cured Epoxies

820

(1)

6.7 Recycling of Mixed Plastics Waste

821

(4)

6.7.1 Direct Reuse

822

(2)

6.7.2 Homogeneous Fractions

824

(1)

6.7.3 Liquefaction of Mixed Plastics

825

(1)

6.8 Post-Consumer Polyethylene Films

825

(1)

6.9 Recycling of Ground Rubber Tires

826

(2)

6.10 Recycling of Car Batteries

828

(1)

6.11 Plastic Recycling Equipment and Machinery

828

(10)

6.11.1 Plastocompactor

829

(1)

6.11.2 Debaling and Initial Size Reduction

829

(2)

6.11.2.1 Shredder

830

(1)

6.11.2.2 Cutter or Guillotine

830

(1)

6.11.2.3 Screw Shredder

830

(1)

6.11.2.4 Granulators

830

(1)

6.11.2.5 Fine Grinding

831

(1)

6.11.3 Cleaning and Selection

831

(3)

6.11.3.1 Dry Separation

832

(2)

6.11.3.2 Wet Separation

834

(1)

6.11.3.3 Other Methods

834

(1)

6.11.4 Resin Detectors: Type and Configuration

834

(2)

6.11.5 Automatic Sortation

836

(12)

6.11.5.1 PVC/PET and Commingled Plastics Sortation

836

(2)

6.12 Upcycling of Waste Plastics

838

(1)

6.13 Plastics Waste Disposal in Landfills

839

(2)

6.14 Energy Recovery from Waste Plastics

841

(1)

6.15 Disposal of E-Waste Plastics

842

(1)

References

843

(4)

7 Trends in Polymer Applications

7.1 Introduction

847

(1)

7.2 Polymers in Packaging

848

(8)

7.2.1 Retorting

850

(1)

7.2.2 Asceptic Packaging

850

(1)

7.2.3 Hot-Filling

851

(1)

7.2.4 Controlled-Atmosphere Packaging

851

(1)

7.2.5 High-Barrier Films

851

(1)

7.2.6 Oxygen Scavenger-Based Packaging

852

(1)

7.2.7 Plastic Bottles

852

(1)

7.2.8 Chemical Containers

853

(1)

7.2.9 Dual Ovenables

853

(1)

7.2.10 Closures

854

(1)

7.2.11 Biodegradable Packaging

854

(1)

7.2.12 Pharmaceutics Packaging and Nanomedicines

855

(1)

7.2.13 Wood-Plastic Composites in Packaging

856

(1)

7.3 Polymers in Building and Construction

856

(8)

7.3.1 Roofing

857

(1)

7.3.2 Flooring

857

(1)

7.3.3 Windows

858

(1)

7.3.4 Pipes

859

(1)

7.3.5 Insulation

859

(1)

7.3.6 Polymer-Concrete Composites

860

(3)

7.3.6.1 Fiber-Reinforced Polymer in Concrete

862

(1)

7.3.7 Wood-Plastic Composites

863

(1)

7.3.8 Smart Healable Polymer Composites

863

(1)

7.3.9 Biodegradable Composites

864

(1)

7.4 Polymers in Corrosion Prevention and Control

864

(4)

7.4.1 Flue Gas Desulfurization

865

(1)

7.4.2 Chemical Resistant Masonry

865

(1)

7.4.3 Piping Systems

866

(1)

7.4.4 Boiler and Cooling Water Treatment

866

(1)

7.4.5 Biodegradable Scale Inhibitor

866

(1)

7.4.6 Reinforcing Steel in Concrete

867

(1)

7.5 Plastics in Automotive Applications

868

(5)

7.5.1 Exterior Body Parts

868

(1)

7.5.2 Interior Components

869

(1)

7.5.3 Load-Bearing Parts

870

(1)

7.5.4 Under-the-Bonnet (Hood)

870

(1)

7.5.5 Future Trends

871

(1)

7.5.6 Polymer Nanocomposites

871

(1)

7.5.7 "Green" Composites

872

(1)

7.6 Polymers in Aerospace Applications

873

(2)

7.6.1 Carbon Fibers

873

(1)

7.6.2 Resins

874

(1)

7.7 Polymers in Electrical and Electronic Applications

875

(8)

7.7.1 Wire and Cable Insulation

876

(1)

7.7.2 Polymer Insulators

877

(1)

7.7.3 Printed Circuit Boards

877

(1)

7.7.4 Connectors

877

(1)

7.7.5 Enclosures

878

(1)

7.7.6 Optical Fibers

878

(1)

7.7.7 Information Storage Discs

879

(1)

7.7.8 Polymeric FET and LED

880

(1)

7.7.9 Polymer-Based Solar Cells

881

(2)

7.8 Polymers in Agriculture and Horticulture

883

(3)

7.8.1 Plastic Film

884

(1)

7.8.2 Plastic Crates

885

(1)

7.8.3 Building

885

(1)

7.8.4 Pipes and Hoses

885

(1)

7.8.5 Greenhouses

885

(1)

7.9 Polymers in Domestic Appliances and Business Machines

886

(4)

7.9.1 Large Appliances

886

(2)

7.9.2 Small Appliances

888

(1)

7.9.3 Business Equipment

888

(1)

7.9.4 Air Filters

889

(1)

7.9.5 Solar Systems

889

(1)

7.10 Polymers in Medical and Biomedical Applications

890

(5)

7.10.1 Medical Packaging

890

(1)

7.10.2 Nontoxic Sterilizable Items

890

(2)

7.10.3 Biodegradable Polymers

892

(1)

7.10.4 Conducting Polymer Nanotubes

892

(1)

7.10.5 Biomimetic Actuators

893

(1)

7.10.6 Dental Resin Composites

894

(1)

7.10.7 Appliances

894

(1)

7.10.8 Disposables

894

(1)

7.11 Polymers in Marine and Offshore Applications

895

(1)

7.11.1 Cables

895

(1)

7.11.2 Coatings

895

(1)

7.11.3 Other Applications

896

(1)

7.12 Polymers in Sport

896

(2)

7.12.1 Synthetic Surfaces

896

(1)

7.12.2 Footwear

897

(1)

7.12.3 Equipment

897

(1)

7.13 Renewable Synthetic Polymers

898

(2)

References

900

(3)

Appendices

A.1 Trade Names for Some Industrial Polymers

903

(12)

A.2 Commonly Used Abbreviations for Industrial Polymers

915

(4)

A.3 Formulations of Flame-Retarded Selected Thermoplastics

919

(4)

A.4 Formulations of Selected Rubber Compounds

923

(4)

A.5 Formulations of Selected PVC Compounds

927

(4)

A.6 Formulations of Polyurethane Foams

931

(4)

A.7 Conversion of Units

935

(2)

A.8 Typical Properties of Polymers Used for Molding and Extrusion

937

(6)

A.9 Typical Properties of Cross-Linked Rubber Compounds

943

(4)

A.10 Typical Properties of Representative Textile Fibers

947

(2)

Index

949

Manas Chanda is emeritus professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science Bangalore, India. He also worked as a summer-term visiting professor at the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, with regular summer visits during 1980-2000. A five-time recipient of the International Scientific Exchange Award from the National Sciences and Research Council, Canada, Dr. Chanda is the author or coauthor of nearly 100 scientific papers, articles, and books, including Introduction to Polymer Science and Chemistry (CRC Press/Taylor & Francis). A fellow of the Indian National Academy of Engineers and a member of the Indian Plastics Institute, he received the BS (1959) and MSc (1962) degrees from Calcutta University, and the PhD (1966) from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India.

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