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E-raamat: Policing Terrorism: Research Studies into Police Counterterrorism Investigations

(Liverpool John Moores University School of Law, UK)
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Based primarily upon information from the UK Special Branch Counterterrorism Unit, Policing Terrorism: Research Studies into Police Counterterrorism Investigations takes you through the mechanics of a counterterrorism investigation. A combination of legal and empirical research, this entry in the Advances in Police Theory and Practice book series examines subjects that include surveillance, intelligence gathering, and informants. It also addresses practical obstacles in counterterrorist investigations.

The first section of the book conducts a comparative study of laws governing terrorist investigations in the UK, US, Canada, and Australia. It compares the legal definition of terrorism in each country and how it has been incorporated into the statutes regarding terrorismexcept in the case of the US, which has not established a definition of terrorism. The book locates similarities in the legal jurisdictions of cooperating countries and discusses how legal gaps can create difficulties for international cooperation.

The second section contains empirical studies on practical aspects of terrorist investigations and the activities of terrorist organizations. It evaluates operational officers discretion in using the powers granted to them and analyzes terrorist organizations methods in radicalizing and recruiting people to their causes. It also explores the critical role of informants in gathering intelligence, covering a broad range of issues including integrity, risk assessment, ethics of handling informants, police interrogation of suspects, and the use of informants at trial.

With many governments currently at a high threat level, increased international cooperation among counterterrorism agencies is imperative. Policing Terrorism presents several pathways to generating more effective cooperation. It provides you with information on factors that help or hurt cooperation while suggesting what can be done to improve current counterterrorist laws and practices.
Series Editor's Preface xv
Prologue xvii
Author xxi
Introduction xxiii
Section I The Law Governing Terrorism Investigations
1 Legal Definition of Terrorism
3(22)
Introduction
3(1)
Legal Definitions of Terrorism
3(11)
UK Definition of Terrorism
4(4)
EU Definition of Terrorism
8(2)
Canadian Definition of Terrorism
10(2)
US Definition of Terrorism Investigation
12(2)
Defining and Ascertaining Evidence That Amounts to a Religious Cause
14(1)
Why Ascertaining the Motivations of a Cause in the Definition Is Important
14(2)
What Is a Religious Cause?
15(1)
Evidence of a Religious Cause
15(1)
A Religious Cause in Collecting or Possessing Information That May Be Useful to a Terrorist
16(1)
A Religious Cause in Distributing or Circulating Terrorist Publications
17(4)
Armed Conflict in the Name of a Religious Cause
19(1)
Should a Religious Cause Be Included in the Statutory Definition of Terrorism?
20(1)
Is a Wide Legal Definition of Terrorism Assisting Agencies in Identifying a Disproportionate Risk in Society?
21(3)
Conclusion
24(1)
2 Government Policies and Statutory Preventative Measures
25(34)
Government Policies Related to Preventing or Preempting Acts of Terrorism: The Risk Is Not Disproportionate, the Risk Is Real
26(2)
Examples of Statutory Preventative Measures
28(3)
Possessing and Providing Materials Supporting Terrorism
28(1)
United Kingdom: Possessing, Collecting Information for Terrorist Purposes
28(1)
Section 57 Terrorism Act 2000: Possession for Terrorist Purposes
28(1)
Section 58: Collection of Information
29(1)
Judicial Interpretation of Sections 57 and 58 Terrorism Act 2000
29(1)
United States: Providing Material Support to Terrorists
30(1)
Summary of Statutory Preventative Measures
31(1)
Proscribed Organizations/Listed Foreign Terrorist Organizations
32(3)
UK Proscribed Organizations (Section 3 and Schedule 2 Terrorism Act 2000)
32(2)
US Department of State Foreign Terrorist Organizations
34(1)
Canada: Banned Terror Groups
34(1)
Summary on Proscribed/Banned Groups
35(1)
Quasi-Criminal Preventative Measures: Example of the UK's Terrorism Prevention and Investigative Measures Act 2011
36(1)
Legal Development of TPIMs
36(1)
Overview of the Operation of TPIMs
37(7)
Terrorism-Related Activity (TRA)
38(1)
Offenses
39(1)
Schedule 1 Measures That Can Be Imposed in a TPIM
39(2)
Proportionality
41(1)
The Controversy over TPIMs
41(3)
NSA, PRISM Project, Journalistic Material, and Schedule 7 Powers: A Case Study of a Terrorism Preventative Stop and Search Measure Used at the National Level in Response to an International Incident
44(1)
Schedule 7 Terrorism Act 2000 Powers
45(1)
Judicial Response to Schedule 7 Powers
46(6)
Purpose of the Stop
46(1)
No Requirement for Reasonable Suspicion
47(1)
Access to Legal Advice
48(1)
Right to Silence
49(1)
Search and Seizure of Property under Schedule 7: Can Journalistic Material Be Related to Terrorist Activities?
49(3)
Detention Periods and Review of Detention
52(1)
Proportionality and the Interests of National Security or Individual Liberty
53(2)
Summary of the High Court's Decision in Miranda
55(1)
Conclusion
56(3)
3 Surveillance and International Terrorism Intelligence Exchange: Balancing the Interests of National Security and Individual Liberty
59(20)
Introduction
59(1)
Surveillance Powers Used in Terrorism Investigations
60(1)
US Powers
60(1)
UK Powers
61(1)
Intelligence Exchange between the United States and the United Kingdom: The Role of Europol
61(2)
The Impact of the European Union's Treaty of Lisbon on Cooperation
62(1)
The Snowden Affair, National Security Interests, and Protecting Individual Rights
63(2)
The Importance of the Snowden Documents to UK Authorities
65(2)
Balancing the Interests of National Security with Individual Rights: Democracies, Neo-Democracies, and the Legal Principle of Proportionality
67(1)
Legal Challenges to US Surveillance Laws
68(4)
Court Decisions Pre-Snowden
68(2)
Court Decisions Post-Snowden
70(2)
UK Courts and the ECHR
72(3)
UK Judiciary's Clashes with the European Court of Human Rights
72(2)
UK Appellate Courts Decisions That Changed Anti-Terror Laws
74(1)
Issues Surrounding Control Orders and Blacklists
75(2)
Conclusion: The Balance between the Interests of National Security and Individuals' Liberty
77(2)
4 Funding Terrorism
79(18)
Introduction
79(1)
Provisions Related to Funding Terrorism under the UK's Terrorism Legislation
79(4)
Terrorism Act of 2000
79(1)
Anti-Terrorism, Crime, and Security Act 2001 (ATCSA)
80(1)
Counter-Terrorism Act of 2008
80(1)
Terrorism (United Nations Measures) Orders and Al Qaeda and Taliban (United Nations Measures) Orders
81(1)
How the Orders Were Derived
82(1)
The Disproportionate and Oppressive Nature of the Terrorism Order Rendering It Ultra Vires
83(2)
European Court of Justice's (ECJ) Decision Being Influential to the Supreme Court's Decision in H.M. Treasury v Mohammad Jabar Ahmed and Others
85(2)
UK's Terror Asset-Freezing Act of 2010 (TAFA)
87(1)
The US Statutory Provision in Relation to the Funding of Terrorism
88(3)
Presidential Executive Order 13224
89(1)
Part III Patriot Act: International Money Laundering Abatement and Financial Anti-Terrorism Act 2001
90(1)
Judicial Response to Lack of Judicial Scrutiny of Asset-Freezing SCRs
91(1)
Conclusion
92(5)
Section II Investigating Terrorism
5 Lack of Discretion in High Policing
97(18)
Introduction
97(1)
Research Methods Used
97(2)
High Policing
99(2)
The Dichotomy between Previous Police Research and This Study
101(1)
Initial Action Taken in CTU Counterterrorist Investigations: It Is Ownership, Not Discretion
102(2)
Intelligence Gathering
104(1)
CTU Operational Officers' Attitudes Toward the Law: Followed to the Letter or Just a Rough Guide?
105(3)
Terrorism Legislation: Extension of Power or Extension of Discretion?
108(4)
Conclusion
112(3)
6 Radicalization of Terrorist Causes: A Study of the 32CSM/IRA Threat to UK Security
115(28)
Introduction
115(1)
Radicalization
116(1)
Research Method Used
117(2)
Sample Size
117(1)
Research Strategy
118(1)
Semi-Structured Interview
118(1)
Ethical Issues
118(1)
Background to the Research
119(3)
RIRA
119(1)
"New" IRA
120(1)
32CSM
121(1)
Radicalization Process in Ireland
122(14)
Economic Deprivation
122(3)
Radicalization through Fundraising
125(3)
Radicalization: The Power of Language and Symbolism to Demonstrate Mutual Empathy
128(4)
Radicalization via the Internet
132(1)
Recruitment to Causes via Social Media
133(3)
Loyalist Paramilitary Violence: Fueling and Legitimizing the Fire of 32CSM/IRA's Cause?
136(2)
Conclusion: Radicalizing Individuals in Britain Support to the 32CSM/IRA Cause
138(5)
Background to British Support for Irish Republican Groups
138(1)
The 32CSM/IRA and British RFBs
138(2)
How Extortion and Murder Have Become a Romanticized 32CSM/IRA Cause
140(3)
7 Recruiting Informants in Counterterrorism Investigations: Is Loss of Integrity a Noble Cause?
143(14)
Introduction
143(1)
Noble Cause Corruption
144(3)
Police Recruitment of Informants
147(2)
Research Method
149(1)
Research Subjects Interviewed and Sample Size
149(1)
Research Method Used
149(1)
Turning Suspects into Informants
150(3)
Role Conflict and Police Officer Integrity
153(3)
Conclusion
156(1)
8 Handling Informants
157(18)
Introduction
157(1)
Law or Policy in Handling Informants?
157(1)
UK's Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act
158(1)
Policies on the Use of Informants in Other States
159(4)
Australia
159(2)
United States
161(2)
Ethical Issues in Handling Informants
163(1)
Motives and Incentives to Inform
163(1)
Informants: The Necessary Evil
164(1)
Ethical Handling of Informants
165(1)
The 1968-1997 Irish Troubles: A Case Study in Unethical Police Handling of Informants
166(2)
Evidence of Informants
168(1)
Immunity from Prosecution/Reduction in Sentence
168(2)
The UK's Serious Organized Crime and Police Act 2005 (SOCPA)
168(1)
The US New Jersey Brimage Guidelines
169(1)
Informant Witness Anonymity in Criminal Trials
170(2)
The UK's Coroners and Justice Act of 2009
170(1)
Canada's Confidential Informant Privilege
171(1)
Conclusion
172(3)
Conclusion 175(6)
Bibliography 181(14)
Index 195
David Lowe is a principal lecturer at Liverpool John Moores University Law School. Prior to becoming an academic, he was a police officer for 27 years with the UKs Merseyside Police, with the majority of his service spent as a detective in the Special Branch Counterterrorism Unit. His research in policing, terrorism, and security has been published in books and journals. He also coedited the second volume of Trends in the Judiciary: Interviews with Judges from across the Globe. He is a regular contributor to Westlaws legal encyclopaedia, Insight, on legal issues related to terrorism, and is regularly used by the television, radio, and the print media in the UK, Europe, and the United States for commentary in these areas.
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