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E-raamat: Principles of Electron Tunneling Spectroscopy: Second Edition

(Polytechnic Institute of New York University, USA)
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Principles of Electron Tunneling Spectroscopy: Second EditionSuurem pilt
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Electron tunnelling spectroscopy is a research tool which has strongly advanced understanding of superconductivity. With the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope, STM, by Nobelists G. Binnig and H. Rohrer, beautiful images of atoms, rings of atoms and of exotic states in high temperature superconductors have appeared. Some of the most famous images of any kind, at this date, are STM topographs. This book explains the physics and the instrumentation behind the advances illustrated in the famous images, and summarizes the state of knowledge that has resulted. It presents the current state of the art of tunneling- and scanning tunneling spectroscopies of atoms, molecules and especially superconductors.

The first edition of Principles of Electron Tunneling Spectroscopy has been a standard reference for active researchers for many years. This second edition fully embraces the advances represented by the scanning tunnelling microscope and, especially, scanning tunnelling spectroscopy. Stunning images of single atoms and spectral images of impurity states in high temperature superconductors will set this volume apart from its predecessor. The background and current status are provided for applications of Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy to single atoms and molecules, including determination of bonding energies and vibrational frequencies. The applications to high temperature superconductivity are carefully introduced and the current status is described. A new section covers the astounding advances in instrumentation, which now routinely provide atomic resolution, and, in addition, developments in imaging and image processing, such as Fourier Transform Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy.

Arvustused

Review from previous edition This is a superb updated review of fundamentals, clearly presented, in this growing field by a highly regarded expert. * John Spence, Arizona State University, USA *

1 Introduction
1(22)
1.1 Concepts of quantum mechanical tunneling
2(1)
1.2 Occurrence of tunneling phenomena
2(4)
1.3 Electron tunneling in solid-state structures
6(3)
1.4 Superconducting (quasiparticle) and Josephson (pair) tunneling
9(4)
1.5 Tunneling spectroscopies
13(2)
1.6 The scanning tunneling microscope (STM): spectroscopic images
15(1)
1.7 Atomic spatial resolution in the scanning tunneling microscope
16(1)
1.8 Density of electron states (DOS) measurement in STM: STS
16(4)
1.9 Perspective, scope, and organization
20(3)
2 Tunneling in normal-state structures: I
23(59)
2.1 Introduction
23(1)
2.2 Calculational methods and models
23(14)
2.2.1 Stationary-state calculations
25(2)
2.2.2 Transfer Hamiltonian calculations
27(2)
2.2.3 Ideal barrier transmission
29(8)
2.3 Basic junction types
37(24)
2.3.1 Metal-insulator-metal junctions
39(9)
2.3.2 Metal-insulator-semiconductor junctions
48(1)
2.3.3 Schottky barrier junctions
49(7)
2.3.4 pn junction (Esaki diode)---direct case and the Si-Ge diode
56(2)
2.3.5 Vacuum tunneling
58(2)
2.3.6 Vacuum tunneling from a spherical STM tip
60(1)
2.4 Dependence of J(V) and G(V) on band structure and density of states
61(2)
2.4.1 Fermi surface integrals
61(1)
2.4.2 Prefactors: wavefunction matching at boundaries
62(1)
2.5 Nonideal barrier transmission
63(13)
2.5.1 Approach to ideal behavior
63(6)
2.5.2 Resonant barrier levels
69(3)
2.5.3 Two-step tunneling
72(4)
2.5.4 Barrier interactions
76(1)
2.6 Assisted tunneling processes
76(3)
2.7 Comments on the time for tunneling
79(1)
2.8 Resolution obtained from a scanning tunneling microscope tip
80(2)
2.8.1 Tersoff and Hamann's model of STM resolution
80(1)
2.8.2 C. Julian Chen's atomic model of STM resolution
80(2)
3 Spectroscopy of the superconducting energy gap: quasiparticle and pair tunneling
82(91)
3.1 Basic experiments of Giaever and Josephson tunneling
82(3)
3.2 Superconductivity
85(8)
3.3 Electron-phonon coupling and the BCS theory
93(10)
3.3.1 The pair ground state
96(4)
3.3.2 Elementary excitations of superconductors
100(1)
3.3.3 Generalizations of BCS theory
101(2)
3.4 Theory of quasiparticle and pair tunneling
103(9)
3.5 Gap spectra of equilibrium BCS superconductors
112(9)
3.6 Gap spectra in more general homogeneous equilibrium superconductor cases
121(39)
3.6.1 Strong-coupling superconductors
121(3)
3.6.2 Gap anisotropy
124(4)
3.6.3 Multiple gaps, two-band superconductivity
128(2)
3.6.4 Excess currents, subharmonic structure
130(8)
3.6.5 Effects of magnetic field
138(7)
3.6.6 Magnetic impurities
145(2)
3.6.7 Pressure effects
147(3)
3.6.8 Interactions with electromagnetic radiation
150(8)
3.6.9 Superconducting fluctuations
158(2)
3.7 Ultrathin-film and small-particle superconductors
160(10)
3.8 Transition from tunnel junction to metallic contact
170(3)
3.8.1 Model of Klapwijk, Blonder, and Tinkham
171(2)
4 Conventional tunneling spectroscopy of strong-coupling superconductors
173(24)
4.1 Introduction
173(1)
4.2 Eliashberg-Nambu strong-coupling theory of superconductivity
173(4)
4.3 Tunneling density of states
177(1)
4.4 Quantitative inversion for α2 F(ω): test of Eliashberg theory
178(4)
4.5 Extension to more general cases
182(12)
4.5.1 Finite temperature
182(3)
4.5.2 Anisotropy
185(2)
4.5.3 Spin fluctuations
187(3)
4.5.4 Electronic density-of-states variation
190(4)
4.6 Limitations of the conventional method
194(3)
5 Inhomogeneous superconductors: the superconducting proximity effect
197(59)
5.1 Introduction: continuity of the pair wavefunction
197(2)
5.2 Andreev reflection and specular SNS junctions
199(7)
5.3 Survey of phenomena in proximity tunneling structures
206(6)
5.4 Specular theory of tunneling into proximity structures
212(11)
5.5 McMillan's tunneling model of bilayers
223(5)
5.6 The Usadel equations and diffusive SNS junctions
228(8)
5.6.1 Reduction of Gor'kov's equations by Eilenberger and Usadel
228(1)
5.6.2 Application of reduced Gor'kov theory to tunneling problems
229(1)
5.6.3 The experiment of Truscott and Dynes confirming the bound state in clean NS junctions
230(1)
5.6.4 The experiment of le Sueur et al.: phase dependence of the density of states
231(4)
5.6.5 Proximity effects in a ferromagnetic N layer, in an NS structure
235(1)
5.7 Proximity electron tunneling spectroscopy (PETS)
236(9)
5.8 Effects of elastic scattering in the N layer
245(5)
5.9 Proximity corrections to conventional results
250(1)
5.10 Further applications of proximity effect models
251(5)
6 Superconducting phonon spectra and α2 F (ω)
256(54)
6.1 Introduction
256(1)
6.2 s-p band elements
256(7)
6.3 Crystalline s-p band alloys and compounds
263(10)
6.3.1 Crystalline s-p band alloy superconductors
263(7)
6.3.2 s-p band compounds
270(3)
6.4 Amorphous metals
273(8)
6.5 Transition metals, alloys, and compounds
281(10)
6.6 Extreme weak-coupling metals
291(4)
6.7 Local-mode and resonance-mode superconductors
295(3)
6.8 Systematics of superconductivity
298(4)
6.9 Effects of external conditions and parameters on strong-coupling features
302(4)
6.10 Eliashberg inversion of bismuthate and cuprate superconductor tunneling data
306(4)
7 High-Tc electron-coupled superconductivity: cuprate and iron-based superconductors
310(26)
7.1 The discovery of cuprate superconductivity by Bednorz and Muller
312(1)
7.2 The Mott antiferromagnetic CuO2 insulator and its doping to a metal
313(4)
7.2.1 Paired holes in copper oxide planes
313(3)
7.2.2 Hubbard and t-J models in two dimensions
316(1)
7.3 Hole-doped cuprates Bi2212 and YBCO
317(8)
7.3.1 Phase diagram for superconductivity in hole-doped cuprate
317(1)
7.3.2 Crystal structures of common cuprates: I
318(1)
7.3.3 Early tunneling measurements on hole-doped superconductors
319(6)
7.4 Crystal structures of common cuprates: II
325(3)
7.4.1 Range of Tc vs. number of copper oxide planes
325(1)
7.4.2 Disorder sites and doping of cuprate superconductors
325(2)
7.4.3 Comments on disorder and inhomogeneity in STS images
327(1)
7.5 Andreev-St. James tunneling spectroscopy
328(1)
7.6 Experimental signatures of nodal superconductivity
328(4)
7.6.1 Specific heat at transition
330(2)
7.7 Josephson junctions in d-wave cases
332(3)
7.8 Further examples of non-BCS superconductors
335(1)
8 Tunneling in normal-state structures: II
336(83)
8.1 Introduction
336(1)
8.2 Final-state effects: I
336(21)
8.2.1 Two-dimensional final states
336(2)
8.2.2 Quantum size effects in metal films
338(1)
8.2.3 Accumulation layers at semiconductor surfaces
339(4)
8.2.4 Spin-polarized tunneling as a probe of ferromagnets
343(7)
8.2.5 Julliere's model of ferromagnetic tunnel junctions
350(2)
8.2.6 Other bulk band structure effects
352(5)
8.3 Assisted tunneling: threshold spectroscopies
357(27)
8.3.1 Phonons
358(8)
8.3.2 Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy of molecular vibrations
366(1)
8.3.3 Inelastic excitations of spin waves (magnons)
367(1)
8.3.4 Inelastic excitation of surface and bulk plasmons
368(1)
8.3.5 Light emission by inelastic tunneling
369(3)
8.3.6 Spin-flip and Kondo scattering
372(6)
8.3.7 Excitation of electronic transitions
378(6)
8.4 Final-state effects: II
384(23)
8.4.1 More general many-body theories of tunneling
384(5)
8.4.2 Tunneling studies of electron correlation and localization in metallic systems
389(5)
8.4.3 Phonon self-energy effects in degenerate semiconductors
394(7)
8.4.4 Electron scattering in the Kondo ground state
401(6)
8.5 Zero-bias anomalies
407(12)
8.5.1 Giant resistance peak
407(2)
8.5.2 Semiconductor conductance minima
409(2)
8.5.3 Assorted maxima and minima in metals
411(3)
8.5.4 The Giaever-Zeller resistance peak model
414(5)
9 Scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) of single atoms and molecules
419(28)
9.1 Theory of observation of single atoms in STS and experiment
419(3)
9.2 Friedel oscillations in 2-D surface state
422(4)
9.2.1 Effect of surface state: inference of wavevector
425(1)
9.2.2 Fourier-transform STM/STS
425(1)
9.3 Quantum corrals
426(3)
9.3.1 Elliptical corrals and focusing effects: quantum mirage
427(2)
9.4 Pair-breaking single adatoms on superconductors
429(3)
9.4.1 Mn and Cr on Pb
430(1)
9.4.2 Zn impurity atoms imaged in cuprate planes
431(1)
9.5 Spectroscopy of Kondo and spin-flip scattering
432(4)
9.5.1 Introduction
432(1)
9.5.2 Kondo spectroscopy of a single trapped electron
433(2)
9.5.3 Spectroscopy of localized moments in Si:As Schottky junctions
435(1)
9.5.4 Comparison of the two Kondo spectroscopy experiments
436(1)
9.6 STM spectroscopy of magnetic adatoms
436(7)
9.7 Molecules and their vibrational spectra
443(4)
10 Scanning tunneling spectroscopy of superconducting cuprates and magnetic manganites
447(28)
10.1 Gap imaging of optimally doped cuprates
447(5)
10.1.1 Site dependence of apparent gap
447(2)
10.1.2 Overdoped case
449(1)
10.1.3 Anticorrelation of gap and zero-bias density of states
449(1)
10.1.4 Internal proximity effect
449(3)
10.2 Localized state at Zn impurity
452(4)
10.3 Model for spectral distortions of noncuprate layers
456(2)
10.4 Superlattice modulation in Bi2212
458(2)
10.5 Fourier-transform STS (FT-STS) and application
460(1)
10.6 Observations of charge ordering in cuprate superconductors
460(4)
10.7 Relation of STS to angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES)
464(3)
10.8 Evidence for electron-spin wave coupling
467(3)
10.9 Colossal magnetoresistance: Mott transition in doped manganites
470(3)
10.9.1 Introduction: mechanism of colossal magnetoresistance (CMR)
470(2)
10.9.2 Pseudogap in manganite LSMO observed by ARPES
472(1)
10.10 Relation of cuprates to ferromagnetic CMR manganites
473(2)
11 Applications of barrier tunneling phenomena
475(14)
11.1 Introduction
475(2)
11.2 Josephson junction interferometers
477(3)
11.3 SQUID detectors: the scanning SQUID microscope
480(1)
11.3.1 Establishing d-wave nature of cuprate pairing
480(1)
11.4 Josephson junction logic: rapid single-flux quantum devices
481(2)
11.4.1 The single-flux quantum voltage pulse
481(2)
11.4.2 Analog to digital conversion (ADC) using RSFQ logic
483(1)
11.5 Detection of radiation
483(4)
11.5.1 SIS detectors
485(1)
11.5.2 Josephson effect detectors
486(1)
11.5.3 Optical point-contact antennas (high-speed MIM junctions)
487(1)
11.6 Tunnel-junction magnetoresistance sensors
487(2)
Appendix A Experimental methods of junction fabrication and characterization
489(34)
A.1 Thin-film electrodes
489(6)
A.1.1 Evaporated films
491(1)
A.1.2 Film thickness measurement
491(1)
A.1.3 Substrate temperature
492(1)
A.1.4 Sputtered films
492(1)
A.1.5 Chemical vapor-deposited films
493(1)
A.1.6 Epitaxial single-crystal films
493(1)
A.1.7 Atomic layer deposition
494(1)
A.2 Foil and single-crystal electrodes
495(3)
A.3 Characterization of tunneling electrodes
498(3)
A.4 Preparation of oxide tunneling barriers
501(6)
A.4.1 Thermal oxide barriers
501(2)
A.4.2 Plasma oxidation processes
503(4)
A.5 Artificial barriers
507(2)
A.5.1 Totally oxidized metal overlayers
507(1)
A.5.2 Directly deposited artificial barriers
508(1)
A.5.3 Polymerized organic films
509(1)
A.6 Point-contact barrier tunneling methods
509(2)
A.6.1 Anodized metal probes
509(1)
A.6.2 Schottky barrier probes
509(1)
A.6.3 Deformable metal vacuum tunneling probes
510(1)
A.6.4 Analysis of point-contact data
511(1)
A.7 Characterization of tunnel junctions
511(12)
A.7.1 Initial characterization of junctions
511(3)
A.7.2 Derivative measurement circuitry
514(9)
Appendix B Methods of scanning tunneling spectroscopy and competing approaches
523(19)
B.1 STM basics, tip production, and characterization; single atom tips
523(4)
B.2 Noise-free x, y, z translation; vibration isolation
527(4)
B.2.1 The cryogenic STM of Wilson Ho
527(2)
B.2.2 The 240-mK STM design of Pan, Hudson, and J. C. Davis
529(2)
B.3 Atomic force microscope; combination STM/AFM
531(3)
B.4 Scanning tunneling potentiometry and point-contact measurements
534(1)
B.5 Ballistic electron emission microscopy (BEEM)
534(1)
B.6 Scanning charge microscopy and spectroscopy
535(4)
B.6.1 Scanning single-electron-transistor electrometry
535(2)
B.6.2 Scanning subsurface charge accumulation microscopy: STM/SCAM
537(1)
B.6.3 Single electron capacitance spectroscopy
538(1)
B.7 Scanning Hall probe microscopy
539(3)
Appendix C Tabulated results
542(11)
Table C.1 s, p elements
543(1)
Table C.2 Alloys and unusual phases: s, p elements
544(1)
Table C.3 d-band elements
545(1)
Table C.4 d-band alloys, oxides, and compounds
546(2)
Table C.5 f-band elements
548(1)
Table C.6 Metal overlayers for barrier formation
548(1)
Table C.7 Studies of Tomasch oscillations in thick superconducting films and of McMillan-Rowell oscillations in thick normal films
548(1)
Table C.8 Tunneling studies of superconductor phonons under hydrostatic pressure
548(1)
Table C.9 Cuprate superconductors
549(1)
Table C.9a Gap values for Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ (Bi2212)
549(1)
Table C.9b Gap values for YBa2Cu3O7+δ
550(1)
Table C.9c Gap values for HgBa2Can-1CunO2n+2+δ
551(2)
References 553(30)
Index 583
Edward Wolf is a condensed matter physicist with long career including industrial and academic, and administrative appointments. He is best known as an authority on electron tunneling spectroscopy, particularly including effects related to superconductivity and the superconducting proximity effect. He has specialized recently in physics related to nanotechnology. He is the author of over 100 research papers and has supervised Ph. D. thesis research of about a dozen students. His specialties include electron tunneling spectroscopy, the physics of superconductors, scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy, and the physics and technology of nanoscale materials and devices. He is Fellow of the American Physical Society.
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