| Preface |
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vii | |
| Acknowledgments |
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ix | |
| Editors |
|
xi | |
| Contributors |
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xiii | |
| Method Authors, Reviewers, and Editors |
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xv | |
| Technical Reviewers |
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xvii | |
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PART I Objectives, Safety Issues, Standards, and a Life-Cycle Approach for Sampling Airborne Radioactivity |
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Chapter 1 Objectives for Sampling Airborne Radioactiviy |
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3 | (8) |
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3 | (1) |
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Specific Sampling Objectives |
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3 | (5) |
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Basic Aerosol Characterization |
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5 | (1) |
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5 | (1) |
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6 | (1) |
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Process Quality Assurance and Control |
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6 | (1) |
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Emergency Preparedness and Response |
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6 | (1) |
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Demonstration of Compliance |
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7 | (1) |
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8 | (1) |
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8 | (1) |
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8 | (3) |
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Chapter 2 Radiation Safety Issues for Air Sampling |
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11 | (10) |
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11 | (1) |
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Fundamental Program Elements |
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11 | (7) |
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12 | (1) |
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12 | (1) |
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13 | (3) |
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16 | (1) |
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17 | (1) |
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Some Special Issues for Sampling and Handling Plutonium |
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17 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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19 | (2) |
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Chapter 3 Standards, Guidelines, Regulations, and Recommendations for Measuring Airborne Radioactivity |
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21 | (22) |
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21 | (2) |
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23 | (9) |
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The International Electrotechnical Commission |
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24 | (8) |
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The International Organization for Standardization |
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32 | (1) |
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Regional International Standards |
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32 | (1) |
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32 | (3) |
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U.S. National Standards Organizations |
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33 | (1) |
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Standards of Interest from Other ANSI-Accredited Organizations |
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34 | (1) |
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The National Standards Organizations in France |
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34 | (1) |
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Government Regulations and Guidance |
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35 | (4) |
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U.S. Law---National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act (PL 104-113) |
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35 | (1) |
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U.S. Radiation Protection Regulations and Guidance |
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35 | (2) |
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Other Recommendations and Guidance |
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37 | (2) |
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Perspectives on the Nature of Regulations |
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39 | (1) |
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39 | (1) |
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40 | (3) |
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Chapter 4 A Life-Cycle Approach to Development and Application of Air Sampling Methods and Instrumentation |
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43 | (12) |
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43 | (1) |
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44 | (7) |
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44 | (1) |
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45 | (3) |
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48 | (1) |
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48 | (1) |
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Production Control Testing |
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49 | (1) |
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49 | (1) |
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49 | (1) |
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49 | (1) |
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50 | (1) |
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50 | (1) |
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Maintenance and Recalibration |
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50 | (1) |
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Periodic Performance Testing |
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51 | (1) |
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Benefits of Harmonization |
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51 | (1) |
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Harmonization across the Life-Cycle Process |
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51 | (1) |
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Harmonization among Instrument Types or Classes |
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51 | (1) |
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Harmonization of Life-Cycle Processes in a Broader Context |
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52 | (1) |
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52 | (1) |
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52 | (3) |
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PART II Fundamentals of Radioactivity and Radioactive Aerosols |
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Chapter 5 Review of Radioactivity, Detection, and Measurement |
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55 | (22) |
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55 | (1) |
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55 | (6) |
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Radioactive Decay and Radiation |
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55 | (6) |
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61 | (8) |
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Review of Radiation Detection Systems |
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61 | (8) |
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69 | (5) |
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Significant Figures and Rounding, Negative and Zero Data |
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69 | (1) |
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69 | (2) |
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71 | (2) |
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73 | (1) |
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74 | (3) |
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Chapter 6 The Physics of Aerosols |
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77 | (58) |
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77 | (1) |
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Aerosol Size Distributions |
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78 | (6) |
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79 | (2) |
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81 | (1) |
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82 | (1) |
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82 | (1) |
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83 | (1) |
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84 | (18) |
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Macroscopic and Microscopic Fluid Properties |
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84 | (2) |
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86 | (2) |
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Diffusion of Particles and Molecules |
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88 | (5) |
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Drag Force and Cunningham's Slip Correction |
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93 | (3) |
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96 | (6) |
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102 | (13) |
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Moments of the Particle Size Spectrum |
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102 | (4) |
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106 | (4) |
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Particle Deposition and the General Dynamic Equation of Aerosol Transport |
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110 | (5) |
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115 | (9) |
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The Sectional Method of Solving the Coagulation Problem |
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117 | (3) |
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120 | (4) |
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124 | (8) |
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Brownian Coagulation---Diffusion Regime |
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124 | (1) |
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Brownian Coagulation---Slip Flow Regime |
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125 | (1) |
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Brownian Coagulation---Free Molecular Flow Regime |
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126 | (1) |
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Fuchs' Method for All Brownian Regimes |
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127 | (1) |
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Gravitational Coagulation |
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127 | (2) |
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Simultaneous Brownian and Gravitational Coagulation |
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129 | (1) |
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Coagulation by Turbulent Diffusion |
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130 | (2) |
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Simultaneous Coagulation Mechanisms |
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132 | (1) |
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132 | (3) |
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Chapter 7 Behavior of Radioactive Aerosols and Gases |
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135 | (22) |
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135 | (1) |
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Physical Forms of Airborne Radioactive Materials |
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136 | (2) |
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136 | (1) |
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136 | (1) |
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136 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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Multiple or Mixed Physical Forms |
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137 | (1) |
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Factors Affecting the Dispersion and Disposition of Aerosols and Gases |
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138 | (5) |
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Aerodynamic Equivalent Diameter |
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139 | (2) |
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Thermodynamic Equivalent Diameter |
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141 | (1) |
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Comparison of Aerodynamic and Thermodynamic Effects as a Function of Particle Size |
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141 | (1) |
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Relative Importance of Resuspension from Surfaces |
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142 | (1) |
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Understanding and Interpreting the Lognormal Aspects of Airborne Particle Size Distributions |
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143 | (4) |
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Modeling Exposure Pathways and Their Significance |
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147 | (5) |
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A Key-Parameter Equation for Exposure Modeling |
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148 | (3) |
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Monte Carlo Simulation of Uncertainty for Prospective and Retrospective Assessments of Airborne Radioactivity |
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151 | (1) |
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An Example Monte Carlo Estimation of Radiation Dose to a Worker from an Accidental Release of Plutonium from a Radioactive Waste Drum |
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152 | (2) |
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Influence of Initiating-Event Probabilities and Other Conditional Probabilities for Accident Consequences |
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152 | (2) |
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154 | |
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15 | (142) |
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157 | (24) |
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157 | (1) |
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158 | (2) |
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Air Filters are not Sieves |
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158 | (1) |
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"Pore Size" is Only a Guide |
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158 | (2) |
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Filters Require Proper Strength, Support, and Sealing |
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160 | (1) |
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Selection of Filter Media for Air Sampling |
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160 | (10) |
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Physical Characteristics of Filter Media |
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160 | (4) |
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Pressure Drop Characteristics |
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164 | (1) |
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Particle Collection Efficiency |
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165 | (1) |
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Radiation Shielding in the Filter Matrix |
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166 | (1) |
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Filters for α-Spectroscopy |
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166 | (2) |
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Considerations of "Front" and "Back" Filter Surface |
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168 | (1) |
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Analytical and Radiochemistry Issues |
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169 | (1) |
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Transportation and Storage of Filter Samples |
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169 | (1) |
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Justifying a Change in the Selection of Filter Media |
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169 | (1) |
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Avoiding Unexpected Changes in Filter Media |
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170 | (1) |
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Filtration for Nuclear Air and Gas Treatment |
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170 | (1) |
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Building Filtration and Air Cleaning |
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171 | (2) |
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Filtration Considerations |
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172 | (1) |
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Air-Cleaning Considerations |
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173 | (1) |
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Filtration for Respiratory Protection |
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173 | (1) |
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Legal Requirements for Respiratory Protection |
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174 | (4) |
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APFs for Different Types of Respiratory Protection |
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176 | (1) |
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Classes of Filter Media for Air-Purifying Respirators |
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176 | (1) |
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Clarification into Dust Masks, Surgical Masks, and Other Media |
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177 | (1) |
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178 | (1) |
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178 | (3) |
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Chapter 9 Behavior of Radon and its Decay Products |
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181 | (1) |
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181 | (1) |
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Uranium Decay Series and 222Rn |
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182 | (11) |
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Solution to Decay Equations Using a Recurrence Formula |
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184 | (1) |
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Potential α-Energy Concentration |
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185 | (1) |
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Radon Sample in a Closed Container or Defined Volume of Air |
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186 | (1) |
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Effect of Deposition on Radon Progeny Concentration |
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187 | (3) |
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Radon Progeny Buildup on a Filter |
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190 | (3) |
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Thorium Decay Series and 220Rn |
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193 | (8) |
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Solution to Decay Equations Using a Recurrence Formula |
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194 | (2) |
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Potential α-Energy Concentration |
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196 | (1) |
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Thoron Sample in a Closed Container or Defined Volume of Air |
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197 | (1) |
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Effect of Deposition on Thoron Progeny Concentration |
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198 | (1) |
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Thoron Progeny Buildup on a Filter |
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198 | (3) |
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Actinium Decay Series and 219Rn |
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201 | (7) |
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Solution to Decay Equations Using a Recurrence Formula |
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202 | (2) |
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Potential α-Energy Concentration |
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204 | (1) |
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Actinon Sample in a Closed Container or Defined Volume of Air |
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204 | (1) |
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Effect of Deposition on Actinon Progeny Activities |
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204 | (1) |
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Actinon Progeny Buildup on a Filter |
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205 | (3) |
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208 | |
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Chapter 10 Internal Dosimetry of Inhaled Radioactive Aerosols |
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181 | (40) |
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209 | (1) |
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Morphology and Deposition |
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210 | (3) |
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213 | (1) |
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214 | (1) |
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215 | (1) |
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216 | (1) |
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Derived Air Concentration |
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217 | (1) |
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218 | (1) |
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218 | (3) |
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PART III Fundamentals of Sampling System Design and Operation for Airborne Radioactivity |
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Chapter 11 Basic Air Sampling Equipment |
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221 | (4) |
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221 | (1) |
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Components of the Sampling Train |
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222 | (20) |
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222 | (1) |
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223 | (1) |
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223 | (1) |
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224 | (1) |
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224 | (1) |
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224 | (1) |
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224 | (1) |
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225 | (1) |
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226 | (1) |
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226 | (4) |
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230 | (2) |
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Critical Orifices and Venturi Meters |
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232 | (1) |
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233 | (1) |
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233 | (1) |
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234 | (1) |
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234 | (1) |
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235 | (1) |
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236 | (1) |
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237 | (1) |
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237 | (1) |
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237 | (2) |
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239 | (1) |
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239 | (1) |
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239 | (1) |
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Oil versus Oil-Less Pumps |
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239 | (1) |
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240 | (1) |
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240 | (1) |
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240 | (2) |
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242 | (1) |
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242 | |
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Chapter 12 Calibration of Air Samplers and Monitors |
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225 | (46) |
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246 | (1) |
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General Calibration Procedures |
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246 | (6) |
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Calibration of Radiation Detector Systems |
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246 | (1) |
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Precalibration Inspection |
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246 | (1) |
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Precalibration Electronic Testing |
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247 | (1) |
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Calibration of Radiation Detectors with Radioactive Reference Sources |
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247 | (2) |
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Calibration of Air Sampling Flow Rates |
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249 | (3) |
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Additional Important Considerations |
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252 | (6) |
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252 | (1) |
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Considerations for Environmental Conditions |
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252 | (2) |
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254 | (1) |
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255 | (1) |
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Quality Assurance Program |
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256 | (2) |
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258 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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Additional Sources of Information |
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258 | (2) |
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Appendix A Generic Calibration Procedure |
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260 | (4) |
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260 | (1) |
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260 | (1) |
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260 | (1) |
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Identified Hazards and Mitigation |
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260 | (1) |
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260 | (1) |
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260 | (1) |
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260 | (1) |
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260 | (1) |
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261 | (1) |
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Pulser Calibrations (Useful for Some Count Rate-Based CAMs) |
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261 | (1) |
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Efficiency Calibration (Detector Calibration) |
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261 | (1) |
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Performance (Alarm) Check |
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261 | (1) |
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262 | (1) |
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262 | (1) |
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Example Calibration Record |
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262 | (2) |
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Appendix B Multiple-Frame-of-Reference Method for Rotameter Correction Factors |
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264 | (6) |
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Introduction and Objectives of the Method |
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264 | (1) |
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265 | (1) |
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265 | (1) |
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266 | (1) |
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266 | (1) |
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The Scale Factor Equation |
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267 | (2) |
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269 | (1) |
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270 | (1) |
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Recommendations to Air Sampling Practitioners |
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270 | (1) |
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270 | (1) |
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Chapter 13 Principles of Air Sampler Placement in the Workplace |
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271 | (14) |
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271 | (1) |
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Aerosol and Gas Transport is Dominated by Ventilation-Induced Airflow |
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272 | (1) |
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Airflow Studies for Testing Ventilation and Sampler Placement |
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273 | (1) |
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Conducting Airflow Studies for Improved Air Quality |
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274 | (2) |
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Conducting Airflow Studies for Sampler Placement |
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276 | (4) |
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Evaluation of Placement of Retrospective Air Samplers |
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278 | (1) |
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Evaluation of Placement of Continuous Air Monitors |
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278 | (1) |
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Optimization of Air Sampling and Monitor Placement |
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279 | (1) |
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Further Considerations for Room Airflow Testing |
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280 | (2) |
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Representative Facility Conditions |
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280 | (1) |
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Representative Aerosol Tracer Release |
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280 | (2) |
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282 | (1) |
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282 | (3) |
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Chapter 14 The Practice of Continuous Air Monitoring for Alpha-Emitting Radionuclides |
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285 | (30) |
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285 | (3) |
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288 | (2) |
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Contributing Factors to CAM Sensitivity |
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290 | (7) |
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Sampling Rate and Placement |
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290 | (1) |
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Interference from Radon and Progeny |
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291 | (2) |
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293 | (1) |
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Decision Level and the Background Correction Algorithm |
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294 | (3) |
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Interference Effects and their Control |
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297 | (1) |
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Precision, Accuracy, and Bias (for α-CAM Alarms) |
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298 | (7) |
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Apparatus Description: Room CAMs and Personal Lapel CAMs |
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305 | (2) |
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Alpha-CAM Placement in the Workplace |
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307 | (1) |
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Calibration and Gain Control |
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308 | (1) |
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Calculation of Exposure in DAC-h |
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309 | (1) |
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Setting and Testing CAM Alarm Levels |
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310 | (1) |
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311 | (1) |
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312 | (3) |
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Chapter 15 Principles of Sampling Airborne Radioactivity from Stacks |
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315 | (26) |
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315 | (1) |
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316 | (11) |
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316 | (1) |
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316 | (1) |
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317 | (1) |
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Mixing Demonstration Method |
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318 | (1) |
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318 | (6) |
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Use of Previously Tested Configurations or Scale Models |
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324 | (1) |
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324 | (3) |
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327 | (5) |
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327 | (1) |
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328 | (1) |
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328 | (1) |
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329 | (2) |
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Modeling Aspiration Efficiency |
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331 | (1) |
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Transport in the Smapling System |
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332 | (3) |
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333 | (2) |
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335 | (1) |
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335 | (1) |
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336 | (2) |
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336 | (1) |
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337 | (1) |
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337 | (1) |
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338 | (1) |
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338 | (3) |
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Chapter 16 Methods for Comprehensive Characterization of Radioactive Aerosols A Graded Approach |
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341 | (16) |
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341 | (1) |
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Hierarchy of a Graded Approach |
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342 | (2) |
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Initial Screening and Detection |
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342 | (1) |
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Comprehensive Characterization and Assessment |
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343 | (1) |
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Routine Monitoring and Control |
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343 | (1) |
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Methods for Comprehensive Aerosol Characterization |
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344 | (5) |
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Optical Particle Counting |
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344 | (3) |
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Particle Collection for Microscopy |
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347 | (1) |
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347 | (1) |
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347 | (1) |
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Measurement of Electrical Properties |
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347 | (1) |
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Volumetric Grab Samples, Impingers, Cold Traps, and Adsorbers |
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348 | (1) |
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Analytical Chemical Techniques |
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348 | (1) |
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Special Techniques for Radioactive Aerosols |
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349 | (2) |
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Detection of Individual Particles by Autoradiography |
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349 | (1) |
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Particle Solubility Measurement to Infer Biological Behavior |
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349 | (1) |
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Density Measurement by Isopycnic Gradient Ultracentrifugation |
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350 | (1) |
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Surface Area Measurement by 85Kr Adsorption |
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351 | (1) |
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351 | (1) |
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351 | (6) |
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PART IV Nonroutine Radioactive Air Sampling |
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Chapter 17 Emergency Situation Air Sampling |
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357 | (12) |
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Background and Introduction |
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357 | (1) |
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358 | (2) |
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Measurement at the Source |
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358 | (1) |
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358 | (1) |
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Resuspension Measurements |
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359 | (1) |
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Current Guidance on Emergency Response Air Monitoring Procedures |
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360 | (1) |
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Anthropogenic and Natural Radioactivity Discrimination |
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360 | (1) |
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360 | (2) |
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Appendix: First Responder Radiological Monitoring |
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362 | (7) |
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Initial Incident Response |
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362 | (1) |
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First Responder Radiation Hazard Assessment |
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363 | (2) |
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365 | (1) |
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Electronic Dosimeter Alarm Set Points |
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365 | (2) |
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367 | (2) |
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Chapter 18 Monitoring Nuclear Fallout |
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369 | (20) |
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369 | (1) |
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369 | (2) |
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Fallout Production and Transport Mechanisms |
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371 | (3) |
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Radioactive Composition of Fallout |
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374 | (2) |
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Effects of Meteorology on Fallout |
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376 | (2) |
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Detecting Fallout in the Atmosphere by Sampling Air or by Measuring the Amount of Fallout Actually Deposited on the Ground |
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378 | (1) |
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Summary of Historical Fallout Monitoring Programs and Current Techniques |
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379 | (6) |
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Sampling and Analyzing Air for Fallout |
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385 | (2) |
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387 | (1) |
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387 | (2) |
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PART V Example Air Sampling Methods for Airborne Radioactivity |
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Introduction to the Methods |
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389 | (2) |
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Method 1 Determination of the Gross Alpha-Radioactivity Content of the Atmosphere |
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391 | (8) |
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1 Principle of the Method |
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391 | (1) |
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391 | (1) |
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392 | (1) |
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4 Advantages/Disadvantages |
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393 | (1) |
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393 | (1) |
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394 | (1) |
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395 | (1) |
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395 | (1) |
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9 Calibration and Standards |
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395 | (1) |
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396 | (1) |
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11 Calculation of Concentration |
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396 | (2) |
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398 | (1) |
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398 | (1) |
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Method 2 Determination of the Gross Beta-Radioactivity Content of the Atmosphere |
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399 | (8) |
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399 | (1) |
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399 | (1) |
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400 | (1) |
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4 Advantages/Disadvantages |
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400 | (1) |
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401 | (1) |
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401 | (1) |
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402 | (1) |
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402 | (1) |
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9 Calibration and Standards |
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403 | (1) |
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403 | (1) |
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11 Calculation of Concentration |
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403 | (2) |
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405 | (2) |
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405 | (2) |
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Method 3 Determination of the Tritiated Water Vapor Content of the Atmosphere |
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407 | (12) |
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407 | (1) |
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2 Principle of the Method |
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408 | (1) |
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409 | (1) |
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410 | (1) |
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5 Advantages/Disadvantages |
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410 | (1) |
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411 | (1) |
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411 | (1) |
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411 | (1) |
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412 | (1) |
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412 | (2) |
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414 | (1) |
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415 | (1) |
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415 | (4) |
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416 | (3) |
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Method 4 Determination of the Elemental Tritium Content of the Atmosphere |
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419 | (6) |
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1 Principle of the Method |
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419 | (1) |
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420 | (1) |
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420 | (1) |
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4 Advantages/Disadvantages |
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420 | (1) |
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420 | (1) |
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420 | (1) |
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421 | (1) |
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421 | (1) |
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422 | (1) |
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422 | (1) |
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423 | (1) |
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423 | (2) |
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424 | (1) |
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Method 5 Determination of Carbon-14 in Air |
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425 | (10) |
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425 | (1) |
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2 Principle of the Method |
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425 | (1) |
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426 | (1) |
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426 | (1) |
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5 Advantages/Disadvantages |
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427 | (1) |
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427 | (1) |
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428 | (1) |
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428 | (1) |
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428 | (1) |
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429 | (1) |
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430 | (2) |
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432 | (1) |
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432 | (3) |
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432 | (3) |
|
Method 6 Determination of the Iodine-131 Content of the Atmosphere |
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|
435 | (12) |
|
1 Principle of the Method |
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435 | (1) |
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436 | (1) |
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|
436 | (1) |
|
4 Advantages/Disadvantages |
|
|
437 | (1) |
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438 | (1) |
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|
438 | (1) |
|
7 Reagents (Sampling Media) |
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438 | (1) |
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439 | (1) |
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440 | (2) |
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442 | (2) |
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444 | (1) |
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444 | (3) |
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|
444 | (3) |
|
Method 7 Sampling Air for Argon-41, Krypton-85, and Other Gamma-Emitting Radioactive Gases Using Gamma-Spectroscopy |
|
|
447 | (10) |
|
1 Principle of the Method |
|
|
447 | (1) |
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448 | (1) |
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|
448 | (1) |
|
4 Advantages and Disadvantages |
|
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448 | (1) |
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449 | (1) |
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449 | (2) |
|
|
|
451 | (1) |
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|
451 | (1) |
|
9 Calibration and Standards |
|
|
452 | (1) |
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|
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453 | (1) |
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454 | (1) |
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|
|
455 | (2) |
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|
|
455 | (2) |
|
Method 8 Determination of the 222Rn Content of the Atmosphere |
|
|
457 | (24) |
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|
|
457 | (2) |
|
|
|
459 | (2) |
|
|
|
461 | (20) |
|
Part A Measurement of Airborne 222Rn Decay Products by Filter Paper Collection and α-Activity Detection (Thomas Method or Modified Tsivoglou Method) |
|
|
461 | (3) |
|
Part B Determination of Airborne 222Rn by Its Passive Adsorption on Activated Charcoal |
|
|
464 | (3) |
|
Part C Measurement of Airborne 222Rn by Counting Damage Tracks Caused by 222Rn and Progeny α-Particles on Special Plastic Film |
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
Part D Determination of Airborne 222Rn by α-Activity Measurement Using Ionization Chambers |
|
|
468 | (3) |
|
Part E Measurement of Airborne 222Rn by Grab-Sample Collection and α-Activity Measurement Using Scintillation Cells and Photomultiplier Tubes |
|
|
471 | (3) |
|
Part F Measurement of 222Rn by Electrostatic Precipitation and α-Energy Spectral Analysis Using a Solid State (Passive Ion-Implanted Planar Silicon) Detector |
|
|
474 | (5) |
|
|
|
479 | (2) |
|
Method 9 A Procedure for Continuous Air Monitoring of Plutonium |
|
|
481 | (16) |
|
1 Principle of the Method |
|
|
481 | (1) |
|
|
|
482 | (1) |
|
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
|
|
484 | (1) |
|
|
|
485 | (1) |
|
|
|
485 | (1) |
|
|
|
485 | (1) |
|
8 Calibration and Standards |
|
|
486 | (1) |
|
|
|
487 | (1) |
|
|
|
487 | (1) |
|
|
|
487 | (10) |
|
|
|
488 | (2) |
|
Appendix: Determination of False Alarm Rate, Acceptable Alarm Set Point, and Alarm Response Time for α-Continuous Air Monitors |
|
|
490 | (7) |
|
Method 10 Personal Air Sampling for Particulate Radioactivity |
|
|
497 | (8) |
|
1 Principle of the Method |
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
|
|
500 | (1) |
|
|
|
500 | (1) |
|
|
|
500 | (1) |
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|
|
501 | (1) |
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|
|
501 | (1) |
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|
|
502 | (1) |
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|
|
502 | (3) |
|
|
|
502 | (3) |
|
Method 11 Real-Time Breathing Zone Monitoring for Personal Respiratory Protection |
|
|
505 | (6) |
|
1 Principle of the Method |
|
|
505 | (1) |
|
|
|
506 | (1) |
|
|
|
506 | (1) |
|
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
|
|
508 | (1) |
|
|
|
508 | (3) |
|
|
|
509 | (2) |
|
Appendix: Radionuclide Characteristics |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
511 | (1) |
|
Abbreviations and Definitions |
|
|
512 | (1) |
|
|
|
512 | (1) |
|
|
|
512 | (1) |
|
Example of ALI Calculation |
|
|
513 | (1) |
|
|
|
513 | (2) |
|
|
|
515 | (2) |
|
|
|
517 | (2) |
|
|
|
519 | (2) |
|
Krypton-85 (85m 36 Kr and 85 36 Kr) |
|
|
521 | (2) |
|
|
|
523 | (2) |
|
Xenon-133 (133m 54 Xe and 133 54 Xe) |
|
|
525 | (3) |
|
Radon-222 (222 86 Rn) and Progeny |
|
|
528 | (2) |
|
|
|
530 | (2) |
|
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
|
|
533 | (2) |
|
|
|
535 | (1) |
|
|
|
536 | (2) |
|
|
|
538 | (2) |
|
|
|
540 | (3) |
| Glossary |
|
543 | (20) |
|
|
|
|
| Index |
|
563 | |
Lisainfo e-raamatute kohta