| Reviewers |
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v | |
| Preface |
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vii | |
| Acknowledgments |
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xi | |
| Part I: The Physics Of Radiography |
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1 Introduction to Radiographic Science |
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5 | (12) |
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5 | (1) |
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A Brief History of X-Rays |
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6 | (3) |
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The Development of Modern Imaging Technology |
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9 | (2) |
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The Development of Digital Imaging |
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11 | (1) |
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12 | (2) |
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14 | (1) |
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15 | (2) |
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2 Basic Physics for Radiography |
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17 | (14) |
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The Base Quantities and Forces |
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17 | (2) |
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19 | (1) |
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20 | (3) |
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Heat and States of Matter |
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23 | (4) |
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27 | (1) |
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28 | (3) |
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3 Unit Conversions and Help with Math |
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31 | (22) |
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31 | (1) |
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32 | (2) |
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Converting Fractions to Decimals |
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32 | (1) |
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Converting Decimals and Percentages |
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32 | (1) |
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32 | (1) |
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32 | (1) |
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33 | (1) |
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33 | (1) |
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Converting to Scientific Notation |
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34 | (1) |
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Calculating with Scientific Notation |
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34 | (1) |
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Converting Units with Dimensional Analysis |
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35 | (2) |
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36 | (1) |
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37 | (1) |
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38 | (2) |
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40 | (8) |
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42 | (13) |
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Understanding the X-Ray Beam Spectrum Curve |
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44 | (2) |
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Understanding the Digital Histogram |
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46 | (2) |
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48 | (1) |
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Review Questions: Practice Exercise 3-1 |
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49 | (4) |
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53 | (20) |
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53 | (2) |
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Physical Structure of Atoms |
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55 | (5) |
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59 | (1) |
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60 | (2) |
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60 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
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62 | (2) |
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64 | (2) |
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66 | (3) |
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69 | (1) |
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70 | (3) |
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73 | (28) |
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73 | (5) |
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The Electromagnetic Wave Formula |
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78 | (1) |
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79 | (1) |
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The Nature of Electromagnetic Waves |
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80 | (2) |
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum |
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82 | (3) |
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Medical Applications of Electromagnetic Waves |
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85 | (6) |
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) |
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85 | (2) |
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87 | (1) |
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87 | (20) |
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Computed Radiography (CR) Readers |
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88 | (1) |
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89 | (1) |
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90 | (1) |
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Optical Disc Reading and Writing |
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90 | (1) |
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Characteristics of Visible Light vs. X-Rays |
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91 | (2) |
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Dual Nature of All Matter and Radiation |
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93 | (4) |
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97 | (1) |
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98 | (3) |
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6 Magnetism and Electrostatics |
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101 | (14) |
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104 | (1) |
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105 | (2) |
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107 | (1) |
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The Five Laws of Electrostatics |
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107 | (1) |
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108 | (4) |
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Using an Electroscope to Detect Radiation |
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110 | (2) |
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112 | (1) |
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113 | (2) |
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115 | (18) |
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115 | (2) |
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117 | (1) |
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Characteristics of Electricity |
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118 | (1) |
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119 | (2) |
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Wave Forms of Electrical Current |
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121 | (3) |
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Electromagnetic Induction |
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124 | (5) |
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129 | (1) |
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130 | (3) |
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8 X-Ray Machine Circuits and Generators |
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133 | (14) |
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A Basic X-Ray Machine Circuit |
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133 | (5) |
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134 | (1) |
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135 | (2) |
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137 | (1) |
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138 | (3) |
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141 | (2) |
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Automatic Exposure Controls (AEC) |
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141 | (2) |
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143 | (1) |
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144 | (3) |
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147 | (16) |
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147 | (2) |
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Components of the X-Ray Tube |
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149 | (7) |
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149 | (3) |
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152 | (3) |
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155 | (1) |
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156 | (3) |
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156 | (2) |
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Extending X-Ray Tube Life |
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158 | (1) |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (3) |
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163 | (18) |
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Interactions in the Anode |
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164 | (6) |
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164 | (3) |
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167 | (2) |
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169 | (1) |
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Factors Affecting the X-Ray Beam Spectrum |
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170 | (5) |
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170 | (1) |
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Milliampere-Seconds (mAs) |
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171 | (1) |
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172 | (1) |
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173 | (1) |
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174 | (1) |
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175 | (1) |
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176 | (5) |
| Part II: Production Of The Radiographic Image |
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11 Creation of the Radiographic Image |
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181 | (16) |
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181 | (1) |
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182 | (1) |
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182 | (1) |
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182 | (1) |
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183 | (1) |
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183 | (1) |
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183 | (1) |
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183 | (1) |
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X-Ray Interactions within the Patient |
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183 | (7) |
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184 | (1) |
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185 | (3) |
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188 | (1) |
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189 | (1) |
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Attenuation and Subject Contrast |
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190 | (2) |
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192 | (1) |
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192 | (1) |
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193 | (4) |
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12 Production of Subject Contrast |
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197 | (14) |
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General Attenuation and Subject Contrast |
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197 | (4) |
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199 | (1) |
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200 | (1) |
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200 | (1) |
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Scattered X-Rays and Subject Contrast |
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201 | (1) |
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Predominance of Interactions and Subject Contrast |
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202 | (4) |
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202 | (2) |
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Types of Tissue and Contrast Agents |
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204 | (1) |
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Relative Importance of kVp in Controlling Subject Contrast |
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205 | (1) |
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206 | (2) |
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208 | (3) |
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13 Visibility Qualities of the Image |
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211 | (14) |
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The Components of Visibility |
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211 | (2) |
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Qualities of the Radiographic Image |
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213 | (8) |
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213 | (2) |
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215 | (1) |
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216 | (1) |
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217 | (2) |
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219 | (2) |
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221 | (2) |
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223 | (2) |
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14 Geometrical Qualities of the Image |
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225 | (14) |
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Recognizability (Geometrical Integrity) |
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225 | (10) |
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Sharpness (Spatial Resolution) |
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225 | (2) |
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Magnification (Size Distortion) |
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227 | (1) |
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227 | (1) |
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227 | (3) |
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230 | (1) |
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Radiographic Magnification |
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231 | (3) |
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232 | (2) |
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Radiographic Shape Distortion |
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234 | (1) |
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235 | (1) |
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Hierarchy of Image Qualities |
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236 | (1) |
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236 | (1) |
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237 | (2) |
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15 Milliampere-Seconds (mAs) |
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239 | (10) |
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Control of X-Ray Exposure |
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240 | (2) |
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241 | (1) |
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Underexposure and Quantum Mottle |
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242 | (2) |
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Subject Contrast and Other Image Qualities |
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244 | (1) |
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244 | (1) |
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244 | (2) |
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246 | (3) |
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16 Kilovoltage-Peak (kVp) |
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249 | (14) |
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Sufficient Penetration and Subject Contrast |
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250 | (2) |
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252 | (2) |
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253 | (1) |
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254 | (4) |
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Patient Exposure and the 15 Percent Rule |
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255 | (1) |
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Impact of Scatter Radiation on the Image |
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256 | (2) |
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258 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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259 | (1) |
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260 | (3) |
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17 Generators and Filtration |
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263 | (10) |
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263 | (2) |
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Effect of Rectification and Generators on Exposure |
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263 | (2) |
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265 | (1) |
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Battery-Operated Mobile Units |
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265 | (1) |
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265 | (4) |
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265 | (2) |
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267 | (1) |
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Effects on Exposure and Beam Spectrum |
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267 | (1) |
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268 | (1) |
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269 | (2) |
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271 | (2) |
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273 | (10) |
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273 | (2) |
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274 | (1) |
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275 | (1) |
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Scatter Radiation and Subject Contrast |
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275 | (2) |
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277 | (1) |
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277 | (1) |
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Calculating Field Size Coverage |
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278 | (2) |
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280 | (1) |
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280 | (3) |
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19 Patient Condition, Pathology, and Contrast Agents |
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283 | (18) |
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General Patient Condition |
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283 | (7) |
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283 | (4) |
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284 | (2) |
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286 | (1) |
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286 | (1) |
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287 | (2) |
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287 | (1) |
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287 | (1) |
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288 | (1) |
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288 | (1) |
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289 | (1) |
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289 | (1) |
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289 | (1) |
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Molecular Composition of Tissues |
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290 | (1) |
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290 | (2) |
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Stage of Respiration and Patient Cooperation |
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292 | (1) |
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293 | (2) |
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294 | (1) |
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294 | (1) |
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295 | (3) |
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295 | (1) |
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296 | (1) |
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297 | (1) |
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298 | (1) |
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298 | (3) |
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20 Scattered Radiation and Grids |
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301 | (20) |
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302 | (1) |
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302 | (1) |
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303 | (1) |
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Large Soft-Tissue Part Thicknesses |
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303 | (1) |
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303 | (1) |
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303 | (1) |
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Reducing Scatter with Grids |
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304 | (12) |
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Grid Ratio and Effectiveness |
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306 | (1) |
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Grid Frequency and Lead Content |
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307 | (1) |
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Effect on Subject Contrast |
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307 | (1) |
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Use of Grids with Digital Equipment |
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308 | (1) |
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Conventional Indications for Grid Use |
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308 | (2) |
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309 | (1) |
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309 | (1) |
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309 | (1) |
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Measuring Grid Effectiveness |
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310 | (1) |
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310 | (1) |
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311 | (1) |
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Technique Compensation for Grids |
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311 | (1) |
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312 | (1) |
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312 | (15) |
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313 | (2) |
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Alignment of the Beam and Grid |
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315 | (1) |
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316 | (1) |
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317 | (4) |
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21 The Anode Bevel and Focal Spot |
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321 | (14) |
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321 | (2) |
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323 | (4) |
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327 | (4) |
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327 | (3) |
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327 | (3) |
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330 | (1) |
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330 | (1) |
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331 | (1) |
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331 | (1) |
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332 | (3) |
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22 Source-to-Image Receptor Distance (SID) |
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335 | (14) |
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336 | (1) |
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336 | (2) |
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Increased Field of View at Longer SID |
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337 | (1) |
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337 | (1) |
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338 | (1) |
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Radiographic Formula for the Inverse Square Law |
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339 | (2) |
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Compensating Technique: The Square Law |
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341 | (1) |
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Rules of Thumb for SID Changes |
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342 | (3) |
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345 | (1) |
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Increased SID to Reduce Patient Dose |
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345 | (1) |
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346 | (1) |
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347 | (2) |
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23 OID and Distance Ratios |
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349 | (12) |
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Object-Image Receptor Distance |
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349 | (5) |
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Effect on Subject Contrast |
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349 | (3) |
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352 | (1) |
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352 | (1) |
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352 | (2) |
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Intentional Use of Long OID |
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354 | (1) |
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354 | (1) |
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Distance Ratios for Magnification and Sharpness |
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354 | (3) |
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Magnification: The SID/SOD Ratio |
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354 | (1) |
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Sharpness: The SOD/OID Ratio |
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355 | (2) |
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Visibility Functions and Distance Ratios |
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357 | (1) |
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357 | (1) |
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358 | (3) |
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361 | (16) |
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Alignment and Shape Distortion |
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361 | (7) |
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Off-Centering Versus Angling |
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362 | (1) |
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Position, Shape, and Size of the Anatomical Part |
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362 | (1) |
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Objects with a Distinct Long Axis |
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362 | (3) |
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Ceiszynski's Law of Isometry |
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363 | (2) |
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Objects without a Distinct Long Axis |
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365 | (1) |
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Off-Centering and Beam Divergence |
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365 | (3) |
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366 | (2) |
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SID as a Contributing Factor |
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368 | (1) |
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Maintaining Exposure: Compensating Tube-to-Tabletop Distance |
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368 | (1) |
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368 | (1) |
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Geometric Functions of Positioning |
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368 | (2) |
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370 | (3) |
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371 | (1) |
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372 | (1) |
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372 | (1) |
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373 | (1) |
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374 | (3) |
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25 Analyzing the Latent Radiographic Image |
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377 | (14) |
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Variables Affecting Exposure at the Image Receptor |
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378 | (1) |
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Variables Affecting Subject Contrast at the Image Receptor |
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378 | (3) |
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Variables Affecting Image Noise at the Image Receptor |
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378 | (1) |
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Variables Affecting Sharpness at the Image Receptor |
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378 | (1) |
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Variables Affecting Magnification at the Image Receptor |
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379 | (1) |
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Variables Affecting Shape Distortion at the Image Receptor |
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379 | (1) |
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379 | (2) |
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381 | (6) |
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Resolution at the Microscopic Level |
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382 | (1) |
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Spatial Resolution: Spatial Frequency |
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383 | (1) |
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384 | (3) |
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387 | (1) |
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388 | (3) |
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26 Simplifying and Standardizing Technique |
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391 | (20) |
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Variable kVp vs. Fixed kVp Approaches |
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392 | (1) |
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Applying the Variable kVp Approach |
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393 | (1) |
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The Proportional Anatomy Approach |
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394 | (4) |
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398 | (3) |
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Developing a Chart from Scratch |
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401 | (5) |
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406 | (1) |
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407 | (4) |
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27 Using Automatic Exposure Controls (AEC) |
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411 | (18) |
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412 | (1) |
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412 | (2) |
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Preset Automatic Back-up mAs or Time |
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413 | (1) |
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The AEC Intensity (Density) Control |
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414 | (2) |
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416 | (3) |
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Detector Cell Configuration |
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419 | (1) |
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Checklist of AEC Precautions |
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420 | (1) |
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421 | (2) |
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Programmed Exposure Controls |
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423 | (1) |
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423 | (1) |
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424 | (5) |
| Part III: Digital Radiography |
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429 | (28) |
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The Development of Computers |
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430 | (3) |
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Computer Hardware Components |
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433 | (10) |
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The Central Processing Unit |
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435 | (2) |
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Secondary Storage Devices |
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437 | (4) |
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441 | (2) |
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443 | (5) |
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443 | (1) |
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444 | (4) |
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448 | (1) |
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449 | (1) |
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449 | (2) |
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451 | (2) |
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453 | (4) |
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29 Creating the Digital Image |
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457 | (20) |
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The Nature of Digital Images |
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457 | (4) |
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Digitizing an Analog Image |
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461 | (3) |
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Role of X-Ray Attenuation in Forming the Digital Image |
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464 | (1) |
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Enhancement of Contrast Resolution |
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465 | (2) |
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467 | (1) |
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468 | (5) |
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Workstations and Display Stations |
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470 | (3) |
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473 | (1) |
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474 | (3) |
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30 Digital Image Preprocessing and Processing (Rescaling) |
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477 | (22) |
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477 | (1) |
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Preprocessing I: Field Uniformity |
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478 | (2) |
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Flat Field Uniformity Corrections |
|
|
479 | (2) |
|
Electronic Response and Gain Offsets |
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
Variable Scintillator Thickness |
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
Light Guide Variations in CR |
|
|
480 | (1) |
|
Preprocessing II: Noise Reduction for Dexel Drop-Out |
|
|
480 | (1) |
|
Preprocessing III: Image Analysis |
|
|
481 | (9) |
|
Segmentation and Exposure Field Recognition |
|
|
481 | (1) |
|
Constructing the Histogram |
|
|
482 | (4) |
|
Types of Histogram Analysis |
|
|
486 | (2) |
|
Histogram Analysis Processing Errors |
|
|
488 | (2) |
|
Maintaining the Spatial Matrix |
|
|
490 | (1) |
|
Rescaling (Processing) the Image |
|
|
490 | (5) |
|
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
|
|
496 | (3) |
|
31 Digital Image Postprocessing |
|
|
499 | (40) |
|
Digital Processing Domains |
|
|
499 | (3) |
|
Postprocessing I: Gradation Processing |
|
|
502 | (9) |
|
Initial Gradation Processing |
|
|
502 | (6) |
|
Parameters for Gradient Processing |
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
|
|
508 | (1) |
|
Dynamic Range Compression (DRC) or Equalization |
|
|
509 | (2) |
|
Postprocessing II: Detail Processing |
|
|
511 | (1) |
|
Applying Kernels in the Spatial Domain |
|
|
511 | (1) |
|
|
|
512 | (4) |
|
Using Kernels for Noise Reduction and Smoothing |
|
|
516 | (1) |
|
Understanding the Frequency Domain |
|
|
516 | (8) |
|
Processing in the Frequency Domain |
|
|
517 | (5) |
|
Multiscale Processing and Band-Pass Filtering |
|
|
522 | (2) |
|
Kernels as a Form of Band-Pass Filtering |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Parameters for Frequency Processing |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Postprocessing III: Preparation for Display |
|
|
524 | (3) |
|
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Contrast-Noise Ratio (CNR) |
|
|
525 | (1) |
|
Additional Gradation Processing |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
|
|
527 | (1) |
|
Digital Processing Suites |
|
|
527 | (2) |
|
Postprocessing IV: Operator Adjustments |
|
|
529 | (1) |
|
Postprocessing V: Special Postprocessing |
|
|
529 | (3) |
|
|
|
529 | (1) |
|
|
|
530 | (2) |
|
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
|
|
533 | (2) |
|
|
|
535 | (4) |
|
32 Postprocessing Operations in Practice |
|
|
539 | (26) |
|
Navigating the Screen Menus |
|
|
539 | (2) |
|
|
|
541 | (1) |
|
|
|
542 | (6) |
|
|
|
545 | (1) |
|
|
|
545 | (1) |
|
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
Inversely Proportional Scales |
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
|
|
547 | (1) |
|
Limitations for Exposure Indicators |
|
|
547 | (1) |
|
Acceptable Parameters for Exposure |
|
|
548 | (2) |
|
Inappropriate Clinical Use of the Deviation Index (DI) |
|
|
550 | (1) |
|
Exposure Indicator Errors |
|
|
550 | (1) |
|
Using Alternative Processing Algorithms |
|
|
551 | (2) |
|
Examples of Alternative Processing Algorithms |
|
|
552 | (1) |
|
|
|
553 | (1) |
|
Smoothing and Edge Enhancement |
|
|
554 | (2) |
|
Miscellaneous Processing Features |
|
|
556 | (1) |
|
|
|
556 | (1) |
|
Image Reversal (Black Bone) |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
Quality Criteria for the Displayed Digital Radiographic Image |
|
|
557 | (3) |
|
Glossary and ARRT Standard Definitions |
|
|
560 | (1) |
|
"Controlling" Factors for Displayed Image Qualities |
|
|
560 | (1) |
|
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
|
|
562 | (3) |
|
33 Applying Radiographic Technique to Digital Imaging |
|
|
565 | (34) |
|
Minimizing Patient Exposure |
|
|
566 | (10) |
|
High kVp and Scatter Radiation |
|
|
566 | (2) |
|
|
|
568 | (7) |
|
Recommendation for Reducing Patient Exposure |
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
Does kVp Still Control Image Contrast? |
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
Exposure Latitude, Overexposure, and Public Exposure |
|
|
576 | (2) |
|
Sufficient Penetration and Signal-to-Noise Ratio |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
Effects of kVp Changes on the Image |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
Effects of Scatter Radiation on Digital Images |
|
|
578 | (4) |
|
Fog Pattern Clean-up by Frequency Processing |
|
|
582 | (2) |
|
|
|
584 | (1) |
|
Proportional Anatomy and Manual Technique Rules |
|
|
585 | (1) |
|
Automatic Exposure Controls (AECs) |
|
|
585 | (1) |
|
Use of Grids with Digital Radiography |
|
|
586 | (4) |
|
|
|
586 | (1) |
|
On Reducing the Use of Grids |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
Mottle or Scatter: Which is More Accetable? |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
|
|
588 | (2) |
|
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
|
|
590 | (2) |
|
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
|
|
590 | (2) |
|
|
|
592 | (2) |
|
Image Retention in Phosphor Plates |
|
|
594 | (1) |
|
|
|
594 | (2) |
|
|
|
596 | (3) |
|
34 Capturing the Digital Image: DR and CR |
|
|
599 | (28) |
|
Comparing CR and DR for Clinical Use |
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
Direct-Capture Digital Radiography (DR) |
|
|
600 | (4) |
|
|
|
601 | (1) |
|
Direct Conversion Systems |
|
|
601 | (2) |
|
Indirect Conversion Systems |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
Computed Radiography (CR) |
|
|
604 | (7) |
|
The CR Cassette and Phosphor Plate |
|
|
604 | (3) |
|
The CR Reader (Processor) |
|
|
607 | (3) |
|
|
|
610 | (1) |
|
Recent Developments in CR |
|
|
610 | (1) |
|
Background and Scatter Radiation |
|
|
610 | (1) |
|
Spatial Resolution of Digital Systems |
|
|
611 | (1) |
|
Field of View, Matrix Size, and Spatial Resolution |
|
|
612 | (4) |
|
Formula Relating FOV to Pixel Size |
|
|
612 | (1) |
|
The DR Detector Hardware Matrix |
|
|
613 | (1) |
|
The Light Matrix in a CR Reader |
|
|
614 | (1) |
|
The Display Monitor Hardware Matrix |
|
|
614 | (1) |
|
The "Soft" Matrix of the Displayed Light Image |
|
|
614 | (1) |
|
|
|
615 | (1) |
|
Efficiency of Image Receptors |
|
|
616 | (3) |
|
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
|
|
617 | (1) |
|
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE) |
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
|
|
619 | (1) |
|
Digital Sampling and Aliasing |
|
|
620 | (1) |
|
|
|
620 | (3) |
|
|
|
623 | (4) |
|
35 Display Systems and Electronic Images |
|
|
627 | (12) |
|
Liquid Crystal Display Monitors (LCDs) |
|
|
627 | (5) |
|
Other Flat Monitor Systems |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
Advantages and Disadvantages of LCDs |
|
|
632 | (2) |
|
Nature of Pixels in Display Systems |
|
|
634 | (1) |
|
Spatial Resolution of Display Monitors |
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
Conclusion: The Weakest Link |
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
|
|
636 | (1) |
|
|
|
636 | (3) |
|
36 PACS and Imaging Informatics |
|
|
639 | (14) |
|
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
|
|
642 | (1) |
|
|
|
643 | (3) |
|
Medical Imaging Informatics |
|
|
646 | (2) |
|
|
|
647 | (1) |
|
|
|
648 | (2) |
|
|
|
650 | (3) |
|
|
|
653 | (18) |
|
Radiographic Equipment Testing |
|
|
654 | (6) |
|
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
|
|
654 | (6) |
|
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
|
|
655 | (2) |
|
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
Focal Spot Size and Condition |
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
Automatic Exposure Control (AEC) |
|
|
659 | (1) |
|
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
Monitoring of Digital Acquisition Systems |
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
Erasure Thoroughness and "Ghosting" |
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
Monitoring of Electronic Image Display Systems |
|
|
661 | (5) |
|
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
|
|
663 | (1) |
|
|
|
663 | (1) |
|
Luminance and Contrast Tests |
|
|
663 | (1) |
|
Ambient Lighting (Illuminance) and Reflectance Tests |
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
|
|
665 | (1) |
|
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
Stability of Self-Calibrating LCDs |
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
|
|
666 | (2) |
|
|
|
668 | (3) |
|
38 Mobile Radiography, Fluoroscopy, and Digital Fluoroscopy |
|
|
671 | (28) |
|
|
|
671 | (3) |
|
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
Alignment and Positioning Considerations |
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
|
|
673 | (1) |
|
Development of Fluoroscopy |
|
|
674 | (2) |
|
The Image Intensifier Tube |
|
|
676 | (3) |
|
Input Phosphor and Photocathode |
|
|
676 | (1) |
|
Electrostatic Focusing Lens |
|
|
676 | (1) |
|
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
|
|
678 | (1) |
|
|
|
678 | (1) |
|
|
|
678 | (1) |
|
Multifield Image Intensifiers and Magnification Modes |
|
|
678 | (1) |
|
Automatic Stabilization of Brightness |
|
|
679 | (2) |
|
|
|
680 | (1) |
|
|
|
680 | (1) |
|
|
|
681 | (1) |
|
Fluoroscopic Image Quality |
|
|
681 | (3) |
|
|
|
681 | (1) |
|
|
|
682 | (1) |
|
|
|
682 | (1) |
|
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
Processing the Image from the Intensifier Tube |
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
Mobile Image Intensification (C-Arm) |
|
|
684 | (1) |
|
Minimizing Patient and Operator Exposure |
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
Fluoroscopic Exposure Time |
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
|
|
686 | (4) |
|
Dynamic Flat-Panel Detectors |
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
Digital Subtraction Techniques |
|
|
688 | (11) |
|
|
|
688 | (1) |
|
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
Image Recording Devices: CCDs and CMOSs |
|
|
690 | (2) |
|
|
|
692 | (1) |
|
|
|
693 | (6) |
| Part IV: Radiation Biology And Protection |
|
|
39 Radiation Perspectives |
|
|
699 | (16) |
|
|
|
699 | (5) |
|
On the Radiographer's Job |
|
|
699 | (1) |
|
On Environmental Radiation |
|
|
700 | (2) |
|
Developing a Frame of Reference |
|
|
702 | (2) |
|
|
|
704 | (3) |
|
Natural Background Radiation |
|
|
704 | (1) |
|
Manmade Sources of Radiation |
|
|
705 | (2) |
|
|
|
707 | (2) |
|
|
|
709 | (2) |
|
|
|
711 | (1) |
|
|
|
711 | (1) |
|
|
|
712 | (3) |
|
40 Radiation Units and Measurement |
|
|
715 | (28) |
|
|
|
716 | (6) |
|
|
|
716 | (1) |
|
|
|
716 | (1) |
|
|
|
717 | (1) |
|
Surface Integral Exposure |
|
|
717 | (1) |
|
|
|
717 | (2) |
|
|
|
718 | (1) |
|
|
|
719 | (1) |
|
|
|
719 | (1) |
|
|
|
720 | (1) |
|
|
|
720 | (2) |
|
Dose Equivalent Limits (DELs) |
|
|
722 | (3) |
|
The Cumulative Lifetime Limit |
|
|
722 | (1) |
|
|
|
722 | (1) |
|
|
|
723 | (1) |
|
|
|
723 | (1) |
|
Genetically Significant Dose (GSD) |
|
|
724 | (1) |
|
Radiation Detection Instruments |
|
|
725 | (3) |
|
Characteristics of Radiation Detection Devices |
|
|
725 | (3) |
|
|
|
725 | (2) |
|
|
|
727 | (1) |
|
Resolving (Interrogation) Time |
|
|
727 | (1) |
|
|
|
728 | (1) |
|
Types of Radiation Detection Instruments |
|
|
728 | (10) |
|
|
|
728 | (1) |
|
Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) Dosimeters |
|
|
729 | (1) |
|
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs) |
|
|
730 | (1) |
|
|
|
730 | (2) |
|
|
|
732 | (3) |
|
|
|
732 | (1) |
|
|
|
733 | (1) |
|
|
|
734 | (1) |
|
|
|
734 | (1) |
|
Personal Radiation Monitors |
|
|
735 | (1) |
|
Voltage Dependence of Electronic Detection Instruments |
|
|
736 | (2) |
|
|
|
738 | (1) |
|
|
|
739 | (4) |
|
41 Radiation Biology: Cellular Effects |
|
|
743 | (32) |
|
|
|
744 | (9) |
|
Tissues of the Human Body |
|
|
744 | (1) |
|
Human Cell Structure and Metabolism |
|
|
745 | (2) |
|
Transfer of Genetic Information |
|
|
747 | (1) |
|
|
|
748 | (5) |
|
|
|
751 | (1) |
|
Cell Life Cycle and Radiation Sensitivity |
|
|
751 | (2) |
|
|
|
753 | (1) |
|
Cellular Radiation Effects |
|
|
753 | (17) |
|
|
|
753 | (1) |
|
Law of Bergonie and Tribondeau |
|
|
753 | (1) |
|
Cellular Response to Radiation |
|
|
754 | (3) |
|
Theory of Cellular Damage |
|
|
757 | (4) |
|
|
|
759 | (2) |
|
Damage to the Cell Membrane |
|
|
761 | (1) |
|
Types of Cell Death from Radiation Exposure |
|
|
761 | (1) |
|
Types of Damage to Chromosomes |
|
|
761 | (2) |
|
|
|
762 | (1) |
|
|
|
763 | (1) |
|
Mutations and Chromosome Aberrations |
|
|
763 | (2) |
|
Visible Chromosome Aberrations |
|
|
764 | (1) |
|
Linear Energy Transfer (LET) |
|
|
765 | (1) |
|
Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE) |
|
|
766 | (2) |
|
|
|
768 | (1) |
|
|
|
768 | (1) |
|
|
|
768 | (1) |
|
Oxygen Enhancement Ratio (OER) |
|
|
769 | (1) |
|
Other Biological Factors Affecting Radiosensitivity |
|
|
769 | (1) |
|
Summary of Factors Affecting Radiosensitivity |
|
|
770 | (1) |
|
|
|
770 | (2) |
|
|
|
772 | (3) |
|
42 Radiation Biology: Organism Effects |
|
|
775 | (18) |
|
|
|
775 | (2) |
|
Stochastic Versus Deterministic Effects |
|
|
776 | (1) |
|
Early Effects of Radiation |
|
|
777 | (6) |
|
|
|
778 | (1) |
|
|
|
778 | (4) |
|
|
|
782 | (1) |
|
Late Effects of Radiation |
|
|
783 | (5) |
|
Teratogenic Effects of Radiation |
|
|
783 | (1) |
|
Period #1: 0-2 Weeks Gestation |
|
|
783 | (1) |
|
Period #2: 2-8 Weeks Gestation |
|
|
783 | (1) |
|
Period #3: 8-12 Weeks Gestation |
|
|
784 | (1) |
|
Period #4: After 3 Months Gestation |
|
|
784 | (1) |
|
Mutagenic Effects of Radiation |
|
|
784 | (1) |
|
|
|
785 | (1) |
|
Cataracts of the Eye Lens |
|
|
785 | (1) |
|
|
|
785 | (9) |
|
|
|
786 | (1) |
|
Mammograms and Breast Cancer |
|
|
787 | (1) |
|
|
|
788 | (1) |
|
|
|
789 | (4) |
|
43 Radiation Protection: Procedures and Policies |
|
|
793 | (32) |
|
Diagnostic Exposure Levels to Patients |
|
|
794 | (2) |
|
|
|
796 | (1) |
|
Optimizing Radiographic Technique |
|
|
796 | (5) |
|
|
|
796 | (1) |
|
Generators and Filtration |
|
|
797 | (1) |
|
|
|
797 | (1) |
|
|
|
797 | (1) |
|
Grids and Image Receptors |
|
|
797 | (1) |
|
Increasing SID to Reduce Patient Dose |
|
|
798 | (1) |
|
|
|
798 | (2) |
|
Radiographic Technique and AEC |
|
|
800 | (1) |
|
|
|
800 | (1) |
|
Digital Processing Speed Class |
|
|
800 | (1) |
|
|
|
801 | (5) |
|
|
|
801 | (1) |
|
Policies for Patient Pregnancy |
|
|
801 | (1) |
|
|
|
802 | (1) |
|
|
|
803 | (2) |
|
|
|
805 | (1) |
|
|
|
806 | (8) |
|
|
|
806 | (1) |
|
The Cardinal Principles: Time, Distance and Shielding |
|
|
807 | (4) |
|
Personnel Shielding Requirements |
|
|
809 | (2) |
|
Equipment Shielding Requirements |
|
|
811 | (1) |
|
Personnel Protection Policies |
|
|
811 | (2) |
|
Policies for Technologist Pregnancy |
|
|
812 | (1) |
|
|
|
813 | (1) |
|
Structural Barrier Shielding |
|
|
814 | (3) |
|
Factors for Adequacy of Barriers |
|
|
816 | (1) |
|
|
|
817 | (1) |
|
|
|
817 | (1) |
|
Advisory and Regulatory Agencies |
|
|
817 | (1) |
|
|
|
818 | (1) |
|
|
|
819 | (2) |
|
|
|
821 | (4) |
Appendix 1: Answers to
Chapter Exercises |
|
825 | (4) |
| Appendix 2: ARRT Standard Definitions |
|
829 | (2) |
| Glossary of Radiographic Terms |
|
831 | (16) |
| Index |
|
847 | |
Lisainfo e-raamatute kohta