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E-raamat: Sea Clutter: Scattering, the K distribution and radar performance

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  • Formaat: PDF+DRM
  • Sari: Radar, Sonar and Navigation
  • Ilmumisaeg: 23-Sep-2011
  • Kirjastus: Institution of Engineering and Technology
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9780863419935
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Sea Clutter: Scattering, the K distribution and radar performanceSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: PDF+DRM
  • Sari: Radar, Sonar and Navigation
  • Ilmumisaeg: 23-Sep-2011
  • Kirjastus: Institution of Engineering and Technology
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9780863419935
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The authors (the two directors of TW Research LTD, a radar development company in the UK, and the deputy scientific director of Thales UK's Aerospace Division) synthesize the literature on maritime radar sensing concerned with scattering from the sea surface and exploitation of sea scattering by radar systems. After describing the experimental evidence of sea clutter characteristics, he presents three chapters that discuss modeling radar scattering, statistical models of sea clutter, and the simulation of clutter and other random processes. These are followed by examination of issues connected to the detection of small targets in sea clutter and imaging ocean surface features. Concluding chapters explore radar detection performance calculations, constant false alarm rate detection, and the specification and measurement of radar performance. Full understanding of the materials requires familiarity with the fundamentals of radar operation, a knowledge of electromagnetic theory and probability, and sufficient "mathematical maturity" to cope with unfamiliar equations, although these topics are discussed in appendices. Books from the UK's Institution of Engineering & Technology (IET), IEE, and Inspec are distributed in the US by Books International. Annotation ©2007 Book News, Inc., Portland, OR (booknews.com)

Sea Clutter: Scattering, the K-Distribution and Radar Performance gives an authoritative account of our current understanding of radar sea clutter. The authors pay particular attention to the compound K distribution model, which they have developed over the past 20 years. Evidence supporting this model, including a detailed review of the calculation of EM scattering by the sea surface, its statistical formulation, and practical application to the specification, design and evaluation of radar systems are all discussed. The calculation of the performance of practical radar systems is presented in sufficient detail for the reader to be able to tackle related problems with confidence.
This book should be invaluable to specialist radar engineers and academic researchers, and of considerable interest to the wider applied physics and mathematics communities.
1 Introduction
1(12)
1.1 Prologue
1(1)
1.2 Maritime radar
1(4)
1.3 The modelling of radar returns from the sea
5(2)
1.4 Outline of the book
7(6)
2 The characteristics of radar sea clutter
13(32)
2.1 Overview
13(2)
2.2 The sea surface
15(2)
2.3 Sea clutter reflectivity
17(2)
2.4 Amplitude statistics
19(4)
2.4.1 The compound nature of sea clutter amplitude statistics
22(1)
2.5 Frequency agility and sea clutter
23(1)
2.6 Observations of amplitude distributions
24(3)
2.7 Polarisation characteristics
27(2)
2.8 Clutter spikes and modulations
29(3)
2.9 Coherent properties of radar sea clutter
32(4)
2.10 Spatial characteristics
36(9)
2.10.1 Range ACF
37(3)
2.10.2 Power spectrum analysis of range-time intensity plots
40(5)
3 Modelling radar scattering by the ocean surface
45(56)
3.1 Introduction
45(2)
3.2 The sea surface
47(7)
3.3 EM scattering from the sea at high grazing angles
54(6)
3.4 Imaging ocean currents at high grazing angles
60(10)
3.5 The composite model for scattering at medium grazing angles
70(5)
3.6 Scattering at low grazing angles: beyond the composite model
75(13)
3.7 Scattering from breaking waves
88(4)
3.8 Average backscatter from the ocean at low gazing angles
92(3)
3.9 Imaging ocean currents at low grazing angles
95(6)
4 Statistical models of sea clutter
101(44)
4.1 Introduction
101(1)
4.2 Gaussian clutter models
102(4)
4.3 Non-Gaussian clutter
106(9)
4.3.1 Compound models of non-Gaussian clutter
108(1)
4.3.2 The gamma distribution of local power and the K distribution
109(3)
4.3.3 A coherent signal in K-distributed clutter
112(1)
4.3.4 K-distributed clutter with added thermal noise
113(1)
4.3.5 Phases of homodyned and generalised K processes
114(1)
4.3.6 Applications to interferometric and polarimetric processing
114(1)
4.4 Spikes in clutter
115(12)
4.4.1 The Class A and breaking area models
115(5)
4.4.2 Clutter spike models and K phenomenology
120(3)
4.4.3 An analysis of spiky clutter data
123(4)
4.5 The lognormal, Weibull and other non-Gaussian distributions
127(2)
4.6 Coherent clutter modelling
129(16)
4.6.1 The Doppler signatures of different scattering events
130(1)
4.6.2 Some typical experimental results
131(3)
4.6.3 Models of Doppler spectra
134(11)
5 The simulation of clutter and other random processes
145(22)
5.1 Introduction
145(1)
5.2 Generating un-correlated random numbers with a prescribed pdf
146(1)
5.3 Generating correlated Gaussian random processes
147(4)
5.4 Fourier synthesis of random processes
151(1)
5.5 Approximate methods for the generation of correlated gamma distributed random numbers
152(2)
5.6 The correlation properties of nor Gaussian processes generated by MNLT
154(2)
5.7 Correlated exponential and Weibull processes
156(3)
5.8 The generation of correlated gamma processes by MNLT'
159(8)
6 Detection of small targets in sea clutter 167(144)
6.1 Introduction
167(1)
6.2 Statistical models for probabilities of detection and false alarm
168(1)
6.3 Likelihood ratios and optimal detection
169(2)
6.4 Some simple performance calculations
171(4)
6.5 The generalised likelihood ratio method
175(2)
6.6 A simple Gaussian example
177(5)
6.6.1 A likelihood ratio based approach
177(1)
6.6.2 Generalised likelihood ratio based approach
178(4)
6.7 The detection of a steady signal in Rayleigh clutter
182(5)
6.7.1 Generalised likelihood ratio based approach
182(4)
6.7.2 Peak within interval detection
186(1)
6.8 Applications to coherent detection
187(3)
6.9 The estimation of clutter parameters
190(3)
6.9.1 Maximum likelihood estimators for gamma and Weibull parameters
190(1)
6.9.2 Tractable, but sub-optimal, estimators for K and Weibull parameters
191(2)
6.10 Implications of the compound form of non-Gaussian clutter
193(2)
6.10.1 Modified generalised likelihood ratio based detection
193(1)
6.10.2 Modified peak within interval detection
194(1)
6.11 Concluding remarks
195(2)
7 Imaging ocean surface features
197(32)
7.1 Introduction
197(1)
7.2 The analysis of correlated Gaussian data
197(5)
7.2.1 χ processing
198(1)
7.2.2 χa processing and the whitening filter
198(3)
7.2.3 χo processing
201(1)
7.3 The Wishart distribution
202(4)
7.3.1 The real Wishart distribution
203(1)
7.3.2 The complex Wishart distribution
204(2)
7.4 Polarimetric and interferometric processing
206(8)
7.4.1 x processing of interferometric and polarimetric data
208(2)
7.4.2 Phase increment processing of interferometric data
210(2)
7.4.3 Coherent summation and discrimination enhancement
212(2)
7.5 Feature detection by matched filtering
214(3)
7.6 False alarm rates for matched filter processing
217(7)
7.6.1 A simple model for the global maximum single point statistics
218(2)
7.6.2 The global maximum of a 1D Gaussian process and the matched filter false alarm curve for a time series
220(3)
7.6.3 Extension to 2D matched filters
223(1)
7.7 A compound model for correlated signals
224(5)
8 Radar detection performance calculations
229(38)
8.1 Introduction
229(1)
8.2 Radar equation and geometry
230(3)
8.3 Normalised sea clutter RCS models
233(4)
8.4 Sea clutter fluctuations and false alarms
237(6)
8.5 Target RCS models and detection probability
243(11)
8.6 Detection performance
254(10)
8.7 Modelling other types of radar
264(3)
9 CFAR detection
267(44)
9.1 Introduction
267(2)
9.2 Adaptation to changing clutter amplitude
269(25)
9.2.1 Control of received signal dynamic range
269(1)
9.2.2 Log FTC receiver for Rayleigh clutter
270(1)
9.2.3 Cell-averaging CFAR detector
271(22)
9.2.4 Linear prediction techniques
293(1)
9.2.5 Non-linear predictors
294(1)
9.3 Adaptation to changing clutter pdf
294(10)
9.3.1 Fitting to a family of distributions
296(1)
9.3.2 Distribution-free detection
297(1)
9.3.3 Estimation of the K distribution shape parameter
298(5)
9.3.4 Estimation of a Weibull shape parameter
303(1)
9.4 Other CFAR detection techniques
304(3)
9.4.1 Site specific CFAR
304(1)
9.4.2 Closed loop systems
305(1)
9.4.3 Exploitation of transient coherence
305(1)
9.4.4 Scan-to-scan integration
306(1)
9.5 Practical CFAR detectors
307(4)
10 The specification and measurement of radar performance 311(28)
10.1 Introduction
311(1)
10.2 Performance specification issues
312(9)
10.2.1 Discussion
312(2)
10.2.2 Adaptive radars
314(1)
10 2.3 Specification of adaptive systems
315(1)
10.2.4 Practical performance specification
316(5)
10.3 Performance prediction
321(5)
10.3.1 Clutter amplitude statistics
324(1)
10.3.2 Clutter speckle component
324(1)
10.3.3 False alarms
325(1)
10.4 Measuring performance
326(3)
10.4.1 Trials
327(1)
10.4.2 Factory measurements
328(1)
10.4.3 Modelling and simulation
328(1)
10.5 Measurement methods and accuracies
329(10)
10.5.1 Probability of detection
330(5)
10.5.2 Probability of false alarm PFA
335(1)
10.5.3 Statistical analysis of trials
335(4)
Appendix 1 Elements of probability theory 339(40)
A1.1 Introduction
339(1)
A1.2 Finite numbers of discrete events
340(2)
A1.3 An infinite number of discrete events
342(2)
A1.4 Continuous random variables
344(4)
A1.5 Functions of random variables
348(2)
A1.6 The normal process
350(8)
A1.7 The time evolution of random processes
358(2)
A1.8 Power spectra and correlation functions
360(1)
A1.9 The complex Gaussian process
361(2)
A1.10 Spatially correlated processes
363(2)
A1.11 Stochastic differential equations and noise processes
365(6)
A1.12 Miscellaneous results
371(8)
Appendix 2 Some useful special functions 379(18)
A2.1 Introduction
379(1)
A2.2 The gamma function and related topics
379(5)
A2.3 Some properties of the K distribution pdf
384(6)
A2.4 The Bessel functions In, Jn
390(3)
A2.5 Expansions in Hermite and Laguerre polynomials
393(4)
Appendix 3 Scattering from a corrugated surface 397(46)
A3.1 The integral formulation of the scalar scattering problem
398(2)
A3.2 Helmholtz equation Green's functions in two and three dimensions
400(3)
A3.3 Derivation of the Fresnel formulae
403(3)
A3.4 Approximate de-coupling of the integral equations – the impedance boundary condition
406(2)
A3.5 Scattering by a perfectly conducting surface
408(9)
A3.5.1 The physical optics or Kirchoff approximation
408(2)
A3.5.2 Small height perturbation theory – PC case
410(2)
A3.5.3 The half-space and reciprocal field formalisms
412(5)
A3.6 Scattering by an imperfectly conducting surface: small height perturbation theory
417(4)
A3.7 Numerical solutions of the scattering problem
421(13)
A3.7.1 Scattering from a perfect conductor
422(8)
A3.7.2 Scattering from an imperfect conductor; modification of the F/B method
430(4)
A3.8 Incorporation of the impedance boundary condition in F/B calculations
434(1)
A3.9 Evaluation of adjunct plane contributions
435(3)
A3.10 Summary
438(5)
Index 443


Keith D. Ward is a director of TW Research Ltd, a small company set up in 1995 to develop and exploit models of all aspects of radar operation and performance. Previously they worked for the UK Ministry of Defence at RSRE Malvern on topics ranging from theoretical physics to maritime radar, seekers and remote sensing. They are both authors of numerous journal and conference papers.



Robert J.A. Tough is a director of TW Research Ltd, a small company set up in 1995 to develop and exploit models of all aspects of radar operation and performance. Previously they worked for the UK Ministry of Defence at RSRE Malvern on topics ranging from theoretical physics to maritime radar, seekers and remote sensing. They are both authors of numerous journal and conference papers.



Simon Watts is Deputy Scientific Director of Thales UK, Aerospace Division. He joined Thales (then EMI Electronics) in 1967 and has subsequently worked on a wide range of radar and EW projects, particularly airborne maritime surveillance radar systems. He is author and co-author of over 30 journal and conference papers and several patents, mainly relating to radar performance in sea clutter. He was appointed MBE in 2000 for services to the defence industry.
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